Abstract
Philosophers of language and linguists need to be wary of generalizing from too small a sample of natural languages. They also need to be wary of neglecting possible insights from philosophical traditions that have focused on natural languages other than the most familiar Western ones. Take, for example, classical Indian philosophy, where philosophical concerns with language were very much involved with the early development of Sanskrit linguistics. Indian philosophers and linguists frequently discussed more general issues about semantics, often in ways that are both similar to and interestingly different from Western philosophers.
One such issue is the problem of sentential unity: what is the relation of our understanding of the meaning of a sentence to our understanding of the meaning of the words that compose it? If words have meanings, why is the meaning of a sentence not just the meaning of the words that compose it? A challenging Indian response is that of the grammarian and philosopher Bhartṛhari (fifth-century), who advocated for a kind of sentence-holism according to which words are unreal and sentence-meaning is primary.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aklujkar, A. (2001). The word is the world: Non-dualism in Indian philosophy of language. Philosophy East and West, 51, 452–473.
Armstrong, D. M. (1989). Universals: An opinionated introduction. Westview Press.
Austin, J. (1995). The province of jurisprudence determined. Cambridge University Press.
Bennett, K. (2017). Making things up. Oxford University Press.
Bhattacharyya, S. (2002). (Ed.). Word and sentence, two perspectives: Bhartṛhari and Wittgenstein. Sahitya Akademi.
Bhattacharyya, J. V. (1978). Jayanta Bhaṭṭa’s Nyāya-mañjarī. Motilal Banarsidass.
Bronkhorst, J. (2019). A śabda reader: Language in classical Indian thought. Columbia University Press.
Brough, J. (1951). Theories of general linguistics in the Sanskrit grammarians. Transactions of the Philological Society, 27–46.
Brough, J. (1953). Some Indian theories of meaning. Transactions of the Philological Society, 161–176.
Cardona, G. (1999). Approaching the Vākyapadīya.Journal of the American Oriental Society, 119(1), 88–125.
Cardona, G. (2004). Recent research in Pāṇinian studies. 2nd revised ed. Motilal Banarsidass.
Coward, H. G., & Raja, K. K. (Eds.). (1990). The philosophy of the Grammarians. Motilal Banarsidass.
David, H. (2021). Pratibhā as vākyārtha? Bhartṛhari’s theory of “insight” as the object of a sentence and its early interpretations. Journal of Indian Philosophy, 49(5), 827–869.
Dummett, M. (1981). Frege: Philosophy of language (2nd ed.). Duckworth.
Ferrante, M. (2017). Bhartṛhari and verbal testimony: A “hyper-antireductionist” approach? Kervan: International Journal of African and Asiatic Studies, 21, 227–246.
Ferrante, M. (2021). Indian perspectives on consciousness, language and self. Routledge.
Frege, G. (1997). The Frege reader. Ed. M. Beaney. Basil Blackwell.
Ganeri, J. (2001). Philosophy in classical India. Routledge.
Gemes, K. (2013). Life’s perspectives. In K. Gemes, & J. Richardson (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Nietzsche. Oxford University Press.
Goodman, C. (2004). The Treasury of metaphysics and the physical world. Philosophical Quarterly, 54, 389–401.
Herzberger, H. G., & Herzberger, R. (1981). Bhartṛhari’s paradox. Journal of Indian Philosophy, 9, 1–13.
Herzberger, R. (1986). Bhartṛhari and the Buddhists. D. Reidel.
Houben, J. (1995a). Bhartṛhari’s perspectivism (2): Bhartṛhari on the primary unit of language. In K. Dutz, & K. Forsgren (Eds.), History and rationality: the Skoevde papers in the historiography of linguistics. Nodus Publicationen.
Houben, J. (1995b). Bhartṛhari’s solution to the Liar and some other paradoxes. Journal of Indian Philosophy, 23, 381–401.
Houben, J. (1995c). The Saṃbandha-samuddeśa (chapter on relation) and Bhartṛhari’s philosophy of language. Egbert Forstein.
Houben, J. (1997a). Bhartṛhari’s perspectivism (1): the vṛtti and Bhartṛhari’s perspectivism in the first kāṇáḍa of the Vākyapadīya.”. In K. Preisendanz, & E. Franco (Eds.), Beyond orientalism. Rodopi.
Houben, J. (1997b). The Sanskrit tradition. In van W. Bekkum, et al. (Eds.), The emergence of semantics in four linguistic traditions. John Benjamins.
Iyer, K. A. S. (1965). The Vākyapadīya of Bhartṛhari with the vṛtti, Chap. 1. Deccan College.
Iyer, K. A. S. (1966). Sphoṭasiddhi of Maṇáḍana Miśra. Deccan College.
Iyer, K. A. S. (1971). The Vākyapadīya of Bhartṛhari, chapter III. pt.i. Deccan College.
Iyer, K. A. S. (1974). The Vākyapadīya of Bhartṛhari, chapter III. pt.ii. Motilal Banarsidass.
Iyer, K. A. S. (1977). The Vākyapadīya of Bhartṛhari, kāṇḍa II Motilal Banarsidass
Lakatos, I. (1971). History of science and its rational reconstructions. In R. Buck, & R. Cohen (Eds.), Boston studies in the philosophy of science(volume 8). D. Reidel.
Matilal, B. K. (1986). Perception. Clarendon Press.
Matilal, B. K. (1990). The word and the world: India’s contribution to the study of language. Oxford University Press.
Matilal, B. K., & Sen, P. K. (1988). The context principle and some Indian controversies over meaning. Mind, 97, 73–97.
Miller, J. T. M. (2020). The ontology of words: realism, nominalism, and eliminativism. Philosophy Compass, 15(7), e12691.
Miller, J. T. M. (2021). A bundle theory of words. Synthese, 198, 5731–5748.
Mohanty, J. N. (1992). Reason and tradition in Indian thought. Clarendon Press.
Nozick, R. (1981). Philosophical explanations. Clarendon Press.
Pettit, P., & Brennan, G. (1986). Restrictive consequentialism. Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 64(4), 438–455.
Pillai, K. R. (1971). Vākyapadīya: Critical text of cantos I and II. Motilal Banarsidass.
Priest, G. (2002). Beyond the limits of thought (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press.
Quine, W. V. O. (1960). Word and object. MIT Press.
Raja, K. K. (1969). Indian theories of meaning (2nd ed.). Adyar Library and Research Centre.
Ramsey, F. P. (1931). The foundations of mathematics and other logical essays. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Rau, W. (2002). Bhartṛharis Vākyapadīya. Franz Steiner Verlag.
Russell, B. (1908). Mathematical logic as based on the theory of types. American Journal of Mathematics, 30(3), 222–262.
Sellars, W. (1963). Science, perception and reality. Kegan Paul.
Sellars, W. (1968). Science and metaphysics. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Siderits, M. (1991). Indian philosophy of language. Kluwer.
Sidgwick, H. (1963). The methods of ethics (7th ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
Wittgenstein, L. (1968). Philosophical investigations (3rd ed.) Basil Blackwell.
Acknowledgements
My sincere thanks to the three anonymous referees for Synthese, who provided a very useful set of corrections and suggestions.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The author declares that they have no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Perrett, R. The unreality of words. Synthese 201, 15 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-022-03904-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-022-03904-7