Information matrix for hidden Markov models with covariates

Abstract

For a general class of hidden Markov models that may include time-varying covariates, we illustrate how to compute the observed information matrix, which may be used to obtain standard errors for the parameter estimates and check model identifiability. The proposed method is based on the Oakes’ identity and, as such, it allows for the exact computation of the information matrix on the basis of the output of the expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm for maximum likelihood estimation. In addition to this output, the method requires the first derivative of the posterior probabilities computed by the forward-backward recursions introduced by Baum and Welch. Alternative methods for computing exactly the observed information matrix require, instead, to differentiate twice the forward recursion used to compute the model likelihood, with a greater additional effort with respect to the EM algorithm. The proposed method is illustrated by a series of simulations and an application based on a longitudinal dataset in Health Economics.

Appendix

Appendix 1: derivatives of the forward-backward recursions

First of all we have that

$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\partial \log l^{(1)}(u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}&= \frac{\partial \log \pi (u|\varvec{x}^{(1)})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}\\&+\,\,\frac{\partial \log \phi ^{(1)}(\varvec{y}^{(1)}|u,\varvec{w}^{(1)})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }} \end{aligned}$$

and

$$\begin{aligned}&\frac{\partial \log l^{(t)}({\bar{u}},u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}= \frac{\partial \log l^{(t-1)}({\bar{u}},\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}\\&\quad +\,\,\frac{\partial \log \pi ^{(t)}(u|{\bar{u}},\varvec{x}^{(t)})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }} +\frac{\partial \log \phi ^{(t)}(\varvec{y}^{(t)}|u,\varvec{w}^{(t)})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}. \end{aligned}$$

Now considering Eq. (8) we have that

$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\partial \log l^{(t)}(u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }} = \sum _{{\bar{u}}=1}^k\frac{ l^{(t)}({\bar{u}},u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{l^{(t)}(u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})}\frac{\partial \log l^{(t)}({\bar{u}},u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}, \end{aligned}$$

which may be recursively computed for $t=2,\ldots ,T$ also taking into account the results in Appendix 2 and that

$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\partial \log \phi ^{(t)}(\varvec{y}|u,\varvec{w})}{\partial \varvec{\alpha }}= \sum _{j=1}^r\frac{\partial \log \phi ^{(t)}_j(y_j|u,\varvec{w})}{\partial \varvec{\alpha }}. \end{aligned}$$

In the end we obtain

$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\partial \log f(\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}= \sum _{u=1}^k \frac{l^{(T)}(u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{f(\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})} \frac{\partial \log l^{(T)}(u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}. \end{aligned}$$

In a similar way we have that

$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\partial \log m^{(T)}(\tilde{\varvec{y}}|{\bar{u}},\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}=0 \end{aligned}$$

and

$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\partial \log m^{(t)}(\tilde{\varvec{y}}|{\bar{u}},\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }} \!=\! \sum _{u=1}^k \frac{m^{(t)}(u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|{\bar{u}},\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{m^{(t)}(\tilde{\varvec{y}}|{\bar{u}},\tilde{\varvec{z}})} \frac{\partial \log m^{(t)}(u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|{\bar{u}},\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }} \end{aligned}$$

for $t=2,\ldots ,T-1$, where

$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\partial \log m^{(t)}(u,\tilde{\varvec{y}}|{\bar{u}},\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}&= \frac{\partial \log m^{(t+1)}(\tilde{\varvec{y}}|u,\tilde{\varvec{z}})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}\\&+\,\, \frac{\partial \log \pi ^{(t+1)}(u|{\bar{u}},\varvec{x}^{(t+1)})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }} \\&+\,\, \frac{\partial \log \phi ^{(t+1)}(\varvec{y}^{(t+1)}|u,\varvec{w}^{(t+1)})}{\partial \varvec{\theta }}. \end{aligned}$$

Then these derivatives may be computed by a backward recursion.

Appendix 2: derivatives of the density and probability mass functions

In the case of a canonical GLM parametrization, and considering the general situation of multivariate outcomes, for the measurement component we have

$$\begin{aligned}&\frac{\partial \log \phi _j^{(t)}(y|u,\varvec{w})}{\partial \varvec{\alpha }}=\frac{y-\mu ^{(t)}(u,\varvec{w})}{g(\tau )} \varvec{a}^{(t)}_{ju\varvec{w}},\\&\frac{\partial ^2\log \phi _j^{(t)}(y|u,\varvec{w})}{\partial \varvec{\alpha }\partial \varvec{\alpha }^{\prime }}= -V(Y^{(t)}|U^{(t)}=u, \varvec{W}^{(t)}=\varvec{w}) \varvec{a}^{(t)}_{ju\varvec{w}}(\varvec{a}^{(t)}_{ju\varvec{w}})^{\prime }, \end{aligned}$$

where $\tau$ denotes the dispersion parameter and $g(\tau )$ denotes the function involving this parameter in the typical expression for an exponential family distribution (McCullagh and Nelder 1989). In the case of categorical data where a multinomial logit parametrization is adopted, we have

$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\partial \log \phi _j^{(t)}(y|u,\varvec{w})}{\partial \varvec{\alpha }}= (\varvec{A}^{(t)}_{ju\varvec{w}})^{\prime }\varvec{G}_{1c_j}^{\prime }(\varvec{e}_j(y\!+\!1)-\varvec{\phi }_j^{(t)}(u,\varvec{w})), \end{aligned}$$

where $\varvec{e}_c(y+1)$ is a vector of $c$ zeros with element $y+1$ equal to 1 (because the first category is labelled as 0) and

$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\partial ^2\log \phi _j^{(t)}(y|u,\varvec{w})}{\partial \varvec{\alpha }\partial \varvec{\alpha }^{\prime }}\!=\! (\varvec{A}^{(t)}_{ju\varvec{w}})^{\prime }\varvec{G}_{1c_j}^{\prime }\varvec{\Omega }\left( \varvec{\phi }_j^{(t)}(u,\varvec{w})\right) \varvec{G}_{1c_j}\varvec{A}^{(t)}_{ju\varvec{w}}, \end{aligned}$$

where, for a generic probability vector $\varvec{f}$, we have $\varvec{\Omega }(\varvec{f})=\mathrm{diag}(\varvec{f})-\varvec{f}\varvec{f}^{\prime }$.

Regarding, the other derivatives, we have

$$\begin{aligned}&\frac{\partial \log \pi (u|\varvec{x})}{\partial \varvec{\beta }}=\varvec{B}^{\prime }_{\varvec{x}}\varvec{G}_{1k}^{\prime }(\varvec{e}_k(u)-\varvec{\pi }(\varvec{x})),\\&\frac{\partial ^2\log \pi (u|\varvec{x})}{\partial \varvec{\beta }\partial \varvec{\beta }^{\prime }}= -\varvec{B}^{\prime }_{\varvec{x}}\varvec{G}_{1k}^{\prime }\varvec{\Omega }(\varvec{\pi }(\varvec{x}))\varvec{G}_{1k}\varvec{B}_{\varvec{x}}, \end{aligned}$$

and, finally,

$$\begin{aligned}&\frac{\partial \log \pi ^{(t)}(u|{\bar{u}},\varvec{x})}{\partial \varvec{\gamma }}=\big (\varvec{C}^{(t)}_{{\bar{u}}\varvec{x}}\big )^{^{\prime }} \varvec{G}_{{\bar{u}}k}^{\prime }\left( \varvec{e}_k(u)-\varvec{\pi }^{(t)}({\bar{u}},\varvec{x})\right) ,\\&\frac{\partial ^2\log \pi ^{(t)}(u|{\bar{u}},\varvec{x})}{\partial \varvec{\gamma }\partial \varvec{\gamma }^{\prime }}= -\big (\varvec{C}^{(t)}_{{\bar{u}}\varvec{x}}\big )^{^{\prime }} \varvec{G}_{{\bar{u}}k}^{\prime }\varvec{\Omega }\left( \varvec{\pi }^{(t)}({\bar{u}},\varvec{x})\right) \varvec{G}_{{\bar{u}}k}\varvec{C}^{(t)}_{{\bar{u}}\varvec{x}}, \end{aligned}$$

where $\varvec{\pi }(\varvec{x})$ is the column vector of the initial probabilities $\pi (u|\varvec{x})$ and $\varvec{\pi }^{(t)}(\bar{u},\varvec{x})$ is that of the transition probabilities $\pi ^{(t)}(u|\bar{u},\varvec{x})$, with $u=1,\ldots ,k$.