Skip to main content

Advertisement

Springer Nature Link
Log in

Rates and Types of Student Aggression against Teachers: A Comparative Analysis of U.S. Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

  • Published:
Social Psychology of Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Student perpetrated violence against teachers is widespread, yet few studies differentiate teacher experiences of violence by school level (i.e., elementary, middle, and high school). This study, based upon 2,558 pre-kindergarten through 12th grade teacher survey responses, revealed differences in types of student aggression against teachers by school level. Middle and high school teachers were more likely to report verbal harassment compared to elementary school teachers. Middle school teachers were most likely to report property offenses. Elementary and middle school teachers were more likely to report physical aggression than high school teachers. Demographic predictors of teacher-directed violence were also examined at each school level. Across all school levels, urban teachers had a greater probability of experiencing a violent incident. For elementary teachers, race/ethnicity and teaching experience were also significant risk factors. Future research, policy, and practice implications and recommendations are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aber, J., Lawrence, J., Brown, L., & Jones, S.M. (2003). Developmental trajectories toward violence in middle childhood: Course, demographic differences, and response to school-based intervention. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 324–348. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.2.324.

  • Akos, P., Queen, J. A., & Lineberry, C. (2005). Promoting a Successful Transition to Middle School. Routledge

  • Alter, P., Walker, J., & Landers, E. (2013). Teachers’ perceptions of students’ challenging behavior and the impact of teacher demographics. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(4), 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2013.0040

  • Alvarez, H. K. (2007). The impact of teacher preparation on responses to student aggression in the classroom. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(7), 1113–1126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2006.10.001

  • Anderman, E.M., & Maehr, M.L. (1994). Motivation and schooling in the middle grades. Review of Educational Research, 64, 287–309. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543064002287

  • Anderman, E. M., Eseplage, D. L., Reddy, L. A., McMahon, S. D., Martinez, A., Lane, K. L., Reynolds, C., & Paul, N. (2018). Teachers’ Reactions to Experiences of Violence: An Attributional Analysis. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal, 21(3), 621–653. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-018-9438-x

  • Anderman, E.M., & Mueller, C. (2010). Middle school transitions and adolescent development. In J. Meece & J.S. Eccles (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Schools, Schooling, and Human Development (pp. 198–215). Routledge.

  • Bastable, S. B., & Dart, M. A. (2007). Developmental stages of the learner. In S. B. Bastable, P. Gramet, K. Jacobs, & D. Sopczyk (Eds.), Health professional as educator: Principles of teaching and learning (pp. 151–197). Jones & Bartlett Learning.

  • Berg, J. K., & Cornell, D. (2016). Authoritative school climate, aggression toward teachers, and teacher distress in middle school. School Psychology Quarterly, 31(1), 122–139. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000132

  • Bergsmann, E. M., Van De Schoot, R., Schober, B., Finsterwald, M., & Spiel, C. (2013). The effect of classroom structure on verbal and physical aggression among peers: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of School Psychology, 51(2), 159–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2012.10.003

  • Bester, S., & Du Plessis, A. (2010). Exploring a secondary school educator’s experiences of school violence: A case study. South African Journal of Education, 30(2), 203–229. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v30n2a340.

  • Bierman, K. L., Coie, J., Dodge, K., Greenberg, M., Lochman, J., McMohan, R., Pinderhughes, E., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (2013). School outcomes of aggressive-disruptive children: Prediction from kindergarten risk factors and impact of the Fast Track Prevention Program. Aggressive Behavior, 39(2), 114–130. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21467

  • Booth, M., & Gerard, J. (2014). Adolescents’ stage-environment fit in middle and high school: The relationship between students’ perceptions of their schools and themselves. Youth & Society, 46(6), 735–755. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118 × 12451276

  • Boser, U. (2014). Teacher diversity revisited: A new state-by-state analysis. Center for American Progress. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED564608

  • Bounds, C., & Jenkins, L. (2016). Teacher-directed violence in relation to social support and work stress. Contemporary School Psychology: The Official Journal of the California Association of School Psychologists,20(4), 336–344. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-016-0091-0

  • Burke, J. D., Pardini, D. A., & Loeber, R. (2008). Reciprocal relationships between parenting behavior and disruptive psychopathology from childhood through adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(5), 679–692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9219-7

  • Campbell, S. B. (2002). Behavior problems in preschool children: Clinical and developmental issues (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

  • Carey, W. B. (1998). Temperament and behavior problems in the classroom. School Psychology Review, 27(4), 522–533. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.1998.12085935

  • Casteel, C., Peek-Asa, C., & Limbos, M. A. (2007). Predictors of nonfatal assault injury to public school teachers in Los Angeles City. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 50(12), 932–939. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.20520

  • Chen, J., & Astor, R. A. (2009). Students’ reports of violence against teachers in Taiwanese schools. Journal of School Violence, 8(1), 2–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220802067680

  • Chen, J. K., & Astor, R. A. (2011a). School engagement, risky peers, and student–teacher relationships as mediators of school violence in Taiwanese vocational versus academically oriented high schools. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(1), 10–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20413

  • Chen, J. K., & Astor, R. A. (2011b). Students’ personal traits, violence exposure, family factors, school dynamics and the perpetration of violence in Taiwanese elementary schools. Health Education Research, 26(1), 150–166. https:// 10.1093/her/cyq083

  • Côte, S. M., Vaillancourt, T., & LeBlanc, J. C. (2006). The development of physical aggression from toddlerhood to pre-adolescence: A nationwide longitudinal study of Canadian children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(1), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-9001-z.

  • Cook, C. R., Williams, K. R., Guerra, N. G, Kim, T. E, & Sadek, S. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020149.

  • Dionne, G., Tremblay, R., Boivin, M., Laplante, D., & Pérusse, D. (2003). Physical aggression and expressive vocabulary in 19-month-old twins. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 261 − 73. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.2.261

  • Dodge, K. A., Coie, J. D., & Lynam, D. (2007). Aggression and antisocial behavior in youth. In W. Damon, R.M. Lerner & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0312

  • Doumen, S., Verschueren, K., Buyse, E., Germeijs, V., Luyckx, K., & Soenens, B. (2008). Reciprocal relations between teacher–child conflict and aggressive behavior in kindergarten: A three-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 588–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802148079

  • Driessen, G. (2015). Teacher ethnicity, student ethnicity, and student outcomes. Intercultural Education, 26(3), 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2015.1048049

  • Dworkin, A. G., Haney, C. A., & Telschow, R. L. (1988). Fear, victimization, and stress among urban public school teachers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 9(2), 159–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030090207

  • Eccles, J. S. (2004). Schools, academic motivation, and stage-environment fit. In R. M. Learner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (pp. 125–154). John Wiley.

  • Eccles, J. S., Lord, S., & Midgley, C. (1991). What are we doing to early adolescents? The impact of educational contexts on early adolescents. American Journal of Education, 99(4), 521–542. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.depaul.edu/10.1086/443996

  • Eccles, J. S., & Midgley, C. (1989). Stage-environment fit: Developmentally appropriate classrooms for early adolescents. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education (Vol. 3, pp. 139–181). Academic Press.

  • Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., & Mac Iver, D. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage–environment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families. The American Psychologist, 48(2), 90–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/10254-034

  • Erickson, M., & Gresham, F. (2019). Measuring teachers’ perceptions of student behavior using the systematic screening for behavior disorders in middle school students. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 27(2), 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426618763110

  • Evans, S. W., Schultz, B. K., White, L. C., Brady, C., Sibley, M. H., & Van Eck, K. (2009). A school-based organization intervention for young adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Mental Health, 1(2), 78–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-009-9009-6

  • Fall, A. M., & Roberts, G. (2012). High school dropouts: Interactions between social context, self-perceptions, school engagement, and student dropout. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 787–798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.11.004

  • Frey, A., Ruchkin, V., Martin, A., & Schwab-Stone, M. (2009). Adolescents in transition: School and family characteristics in the development of violent behaviors entering high school. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 40(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-008-0105-x

  • Galand, B., Lecocq, C., & Philippot, P. (2007). School violence and teacher professional disengagement. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(2), 465–77. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709906×114571.

  • Gerberich, S. G., Nachreiner, N. M., Ryan, A. D., Church, T. R., McGovern, P. M., Geisser, M. S., & Pinder, E. D. (2011). Violence against educators: A population-based study. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 53(3), 294–302. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0b013e31820c3fa

  • Gerberich, S. G., Nachreiner, N. M., Ryan, A. D., Church, T. R., McGovern, P. M., Geisser, M. S., Mongin, S. J., Watt, G. D., Feda, D. M., Sage, S. K., & Pinder, E. D. (2014). Case-control study of student-perpetrated physical violence against educators. Annals of Epidemiology, 24(5), 325–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2014.02.006

  • Griffin, A. (2018). Our Stories, Our Struggles, Our Strengths: Perspectives and Reflections from Latino Teachers. The Education Trust. Retrieved from https://edtrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Our-Stories-Our-Struggles-Our-Strengths-FINAL.pdf

  • Gwernan-Jones, R., Moore, D. A., Garside, R., Richardson, M., Thompson-Coon, J., Rogers, M., Cooper, P., Stein, K. & Ford, T. (2015) ADHD, parent perspectives and parent-teacher relationships: Grounds for conflict. British Journal of Special Education, 42(3), 279–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.12087

  • Hein, V., Koka, A., & Hagger, M. S. (2015). Relationships between perceived teachers’ controlling behaviour, psychological need thwarting, anger and bullying behaviour in high-school students. Journal of Adolescence, 42, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.04.003

  • Hemphill, S. A., Kotevski, A., Herrenkohl, T. I., Toumbourou, J. W., Carlin, J. B., Catalano, R. F., & Patton, G. C. (2010). Pubertal stage and the prevalence of violence and social/relational aggression. Pediatrics, 126(2), e298-e305. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0574

  • Johnson, S., Burke, J., & Gielen, A. (2012). Urban students’ perceptions of the school environment’s influence on school violence. Children & Schools, 34(2), 92–102. https://doi.org/10.1093/cs/cds016

  • Jones, S., Barnes, S., Bailey, R., & Doolittle, E. (2017). Promoting social and emotional competencies in elementary school. Future of Children, 27(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2017.0003

  • Kandakai, T., & King, K. (2002). Preservice teachers’ perceived confidence in teaching school violence prevention. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26(5), 342 − 53. https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.26.5.3

  • Khoury-Kassabri, M., Astor, R. A., & Benbenishty, R. (2009). Middle Eastern adolescents’ perpetration of school violence against peers and teachers: A cross-cultural and ecological analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(1), 159–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508315777

  • Kim, H., Schwartz, K., Cappella, E., & Seidman, E. (2014). Navigating middle grades: Role of social contexts in middle grade school climate. American Journal of Community Psychology,54(1–2), 28–45 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-014-9659-x

  • Klein, J., & Cornell, D. (2010). Is the link between large high schools and student victimization an illusion? Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(4), 933–946. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019896

  • Lane, K. L., Wehby, J. H., Little, M. A., & Cooley, C. (2005). Students educated in self-contained classrooms and self-contained schools: Part II—how do they progress over time? Behavioral Disorders, 30(4), 363–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290503000408

  • Lasky, S. (2000). The cultural and emotional politics of teacher-parent interactions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(8), 843–860. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742-051 × (00)00030-5

  • Leadbeater, B. J., Sukhawathanakul, P., Smith, A., Yeung Thompson, R. S., Gladstone, E. J., & Sklar, N. (2013). Bullying and victimization in rural schools: Risks, reasons, and responses. Journal of Rural and Community Development, 8(1), 31–47.

  • Liu, J., Lewis, G., & Evans, L. (2013). Understanding aggressive behaviour across the lifespan. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 20(2), 156–168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2850.2012.01902.x

  • Longobardi, C., Prino, L. E., Marengo, D., & Settanni, M. (2016). Student-teacher relationships as a protective factor for school adjustment during the transition from middle to high school. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1988 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01988

  • Maeng, J. L., Malone, M., & Cornell, D. (2020). Student threats of violence against teachers: Prevalence and outcomes using a threat assessment approach. Teaching and Teacher Education, 87, 102934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.102934

  • Malone, K., & Tranter, P. (2003). School grounds as sites for learning: Making the most of environmental opportunities. Environmental Education Research, 9(3), 283–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504620303459

  • Malti, T., Chaparro, M. P., Zuffianò, A., & Colasante, T. (2016). School-based interventions to promote empathy-related responding in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 45(6), 718–731. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1121822

  • McMahon, S. D., Davis, J. O., Peist, E, Bare, K., Espelage, D. L., Martinez, A., Anderman, E. M., & Reddy, L.A. (2020a). Student verbal aggression toward teachers: How do behavioral patterns unfold? Psychology of Violence, 10(2), 192–200. doi: 10.1037/vio0000256

  • McMahon, S. D., Martinez, A., Espelage, D., Rose, C., Reddy, L. A., Lane, K., Anderman, E., Reynolds, C. R., Jones, A., & Brown, V. (2014). Violence directed against teachers: Results from a national survey. Psychology in the Schools, 51(7), 753–766. doi: 10.1002/pits.21777

  • McMahon, S.D., Peist, E., Davis, J. O., & Bare, K., Martinez, A., Reddy, L.A., Espelage, D. L., & Anderman, E.M. (2020b). Physical aggression toward teachers: Antecedents, behaviors, and consequences. Aggressive Behavior, 46(1), 116–126. doi: 10.1002/ab.21870

  • McMahon, S.D., Peist, E., Davis, J. O., McConnell, E., Reaves, S., Reddy, L.A., Anderman, E.M., & Espelage, D.L. (2020c). Addressing violence against teachers: A social ecological analysis of teachers’ perspectives. Psychology in the Schools, 57(7), 1040-1056. doi: 10.1002/pits.22382

  • McMahon, S.D., Reaves, S., McConnell, E., Peist, E., Ruiz, L., & APA Task Force on Classroom Violence Directed Against Teachers (2017). The ecology of teachers’ experiences with violence and lack of administrative support. American Journal of Community Psychology, 60(3-4), 502–515. doi: 10.1002/ajcp.12202

  • McMahon, S.D., Todd, N. R., Martinez, A., Coker, C., Sheu, C.F., Washburn, J. J., & Shah, S. (2013). Aggressive and prosocial behavior: Community violence, cognitive, and behavioral predictors among urban African American youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 51(3-4), 407–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-012-9560-4

  • Mills, M. (2001). Challenging violence in schools, an issue of masculinities. Open University Press.

  • Moon. B., & McCluskey, J., (2016). School-based victimization of teachers in Korea: Focusing on individual and school characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(17), 1340–1361. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514564156

  • Neiman, S., & DeVoe, J.F. (2009). Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Safety in U.S. Public Schools: Findings From the School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2007–08 (NCES 2009 − 326). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2009/2009326.pdf

  • Nizielski, S., Hallum, S., Lopes, P. N., & Schütz, A. (2012). Attention to student needs mediates the relationship between teacher emotional intelligence and student misconduct in the classroom. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 30(4), 320–329. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282912449439

  • Ozkilic, R., & Kartal, H. (2012). Teachers bullied by their students: How their classes influenced after being bullied? Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 3435–3439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.080

  • Papa, R. (2019). School Violence in International Contexts. Springer International Publishing.

  • Parker, A., Rakes, L. & Arndt, K. (2017). Departmentalized, self-contained, or somewhere in between: Understanding elementary grade-level organizational decision-making. The Educational Forum, 81(3), 236–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2017.1314569.

  • Peist, E., McMahon, S. D., Davis, J. O., & Keys, C. B. (2020): Teacher turnover in the context of teacher-directed violence: An empowerment lens, Journal of School Violence, 19(4), 553-565, https//doi.org/ 10.1080/15388220.2020.1779081

  • Poling, D. V., Smith, S. W., Taylor, G. G., & Worth, M. R. (2019). Direct verbal aggression in school settings: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 46, 127–139. https//doi.org/ 10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.010

  • Reddy, L. A., Espelage, D., Anderman, E., Kanrich, J., & McMahon, S.D. (2018). Addressing violence against educators through measurement and research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 42, 9–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.06.006

  • Rice, F. P., & Dolgin, K. G. (2005). The adolescent: Development, relationships, cultures (11th ed.). Allyn and Bacon.

  • Risco, C., Collado, A., Reynolds, E., Lejuez, C., & MacPherson, L. (2016). Evaluation of the environmental supports scale with a community sample of adolescents. Prevention Science, 17(4), 493–502. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0637-4.

  • Roeser, R. W., & Eccles, J. S. (1998). Adolescents’ perceptions of middle school: Relation to longitudinal changes in academic and psychological adjustment. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 8(1), 123–158. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327795jra0801_6

  • Rose, A. J., Swenson, L. P., & Waller, E. M. (2004). Overt and relational aggression and perceived popularity: Developmental differences in concurrent and prospective relations. Developmental Psychology, 40(3), 378. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.3.378

  • Rudolph, K. D., Lambert, S. F., Clark, A. G., & Kurlakowsky, K. D. (2001). Negotiating the transition to middle school: The role of self-regulatory processes. Child Development, 72(3), 929–946. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00325

  • Rusby, J., Crowley, R., Sprague, J., & Biglan, A. (2011). Observations of the middle school environment: The context for student behavior beyond the classroom. Psychology in the Schools, 48(4), 400–415. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20562

  • Salzinger, S., Rosario, M., Feldman, R.S, & Ng-Mak, D.S. (2008). Aggressive behavior in response to violence exposure: Is it adaptive for middle-school children? Journal of Community Psychology, 36(8), 1008–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20275.

  • Schofield, K. E., Ryan, A. D., & Stroinski, C., (2017). Student-inflicted injuries to staff in schools: Comparing risk between educators and non-educators. Injury Prevention, 25(2), 116–122 https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2017-042472

  • Scott, T. M., Gage, N., Hirn, R., & Han, H. (2019). Teacher and student race as a predictor for negative feedback during instruction. School Psychology, 34(1), 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000251

  • Sela-Shayovitz, R. (2009). Dealing with school violence: The effect of school violence prevention training on teachers’ perceived self-efficacy in dealing with violent events. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(8), 1061–1066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.04.010

  • Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(2), 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005

  • Stipek, D., & Miles, S. (2008). Effects of Aggression on Achievement: Does Conflict With the Teacher Make It Worse? Child Development, 79(6), 1721–1735. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01221.x

  • Thijs, J., & Eilbracht, L. (2012). Teachers perceptions of parent-teacher alliance and student-teacher relational conflict: Examining the role of ethnic differences and “disruptive” behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 49(8), 794–808. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21635

  • Toldos, M. P. (2005). Sex and age differences in self-estimated physical, verbal and indirect aggression in Spanish adolescents. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression, 31(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20034

  • Tsorbatzoudis, H., Travlos, A. K., & Rodafinos, A. (2013). Gender and age differences in self-reported aggression of high school students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(8), 1709–1725 https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512468323

  • Children’s Fund. (2017). A Familiar Face: Violence in the lives of children and adolescents. UNICEF. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_101397.html

  • U.S. Department of Education, Institute for Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. (2010, March 10). Teacher’s perceptions about teaching and school conditions, by control and level of school: 1993–94, 1999–2000, and 2003–04. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_072.asp

  • U.S. Department of Education. Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. (2021a.) Characteristics of Public School Teachers. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/pdf/2021/clr_508c.pdf

  • U.S. Department of Education. Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. (2021b). Racial/Ethnic Enrollment in Public Schools. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/pdf/2021/cge_508c.pdf

  • Walker, H.M., Ramsay, E., & Gresham, F.M. (2004). Antisocial behavior in school: Evidence- based practices (2nd ed.). Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

  • Wang, K., Chen, Y., Zhang, J., & Oudekerk, B.A. (2020). Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2019 (NCES 2020-063/NCJ 254485). National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2020/2020063.pdf

  • Wang, M. T., & Holcombe, R. (2010). Adolescents’ perceptions of school environment, engagement, and academic achievement in middle school. American Educational Research Journal, 47(3), 633–662 https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831209361209

  • Way, N., Reddy, R., & Rhodes, J. (2007). Students’ perceptions of school climate during the middle school years: Associations with trajectories of psychological and behavioral adjustment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 40(3-4), 194–213. doi: 10.1007/s10464-007-9143-y

  • Wei, C., Gerberich, S. G., Alexander, B. H., Ryan, A. D., Nachreiner, N. M., & Mongin, S. J. (2013). Work-related violence against educators in Minnesota: Rates and risks based on hours exposed. Journal of Safety Research, 44, 73-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2012.12.005.

  • Wilson, C. M., Douglas, K. S., & Lyon, D. R. (2011). Violence against teachers: Prevalence and consequences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(12), 2353–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510383027

  • Young, E. L., Boye, A. E., & Nelson, D. A. (2006). Relational aggression: Understanding, identifying, and responding in schools. Psychology in the Schools, 43(3), 297–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20148

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Chipuer, H. M., Hanisch, M., Creed, P. A., & McGregor, L. (2006). Relationships at school and stage-environment fit as resources for adolescent engagement and achievement. Journal of Adolescence, 29(6), 911–933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.04.008

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, DePaul University, 2219 North Kenmore Ave, 60614, Chicago, IL, USA

    Susan D. McMahon, Cori L. Cafaro, Kailyn Bare, Kayleigh E. Zinter & Yesenia Garcia Murillo

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida, 4111 Pictor Lane, Building 99, Suite 320, 32816, Orlando, FL, USA

    Gabrielle Lynch

  3. Department of Educational Studies, The Ohio State University, 29 West Woodruff Avenue, 43210, Columbus, OH, USA

    Eric M. Anderman

  4. School of Education, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 100 E Cameron Ave, 27514, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    Dorothy L. Espelage

  5. Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology, Rutgers University, 152 Frelinghuysen Rd, 08854, Piscataway, NJ, USA

    Linda A. Reddy

  6. American Psychological Association, Psychology in Schools and Education, 750 First Street, 20002, Washington, NE, DC, USA

    Rena Subotnik

Authors
  1. Susan D. McMahon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cori L. Cafaro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kailyn Bare
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kayleigh E. Zinter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Yesenia Garcia Murillo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Gabrielle Lynch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Eric M. Anderman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Dorothy L. Espelage
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Linda A. Reddy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Rena Subotnik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Susan D. McMahon.

Ethics declarations

Declarations

We have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

McMahon, S.D., Cafaro, C.L., Bare, K. et al. Rates and Types of Student Aggression against Teachers: A Comparative Analysis of U.S. Elementary, Middle, and High Schools. Soc Psychol Educ 25, 767–792 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-022-09706-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-022-09706-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation