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The Physics of Star Cluster Formation and Evolution

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Abstract

Star clusters form in dense, hierarchically collapsing gas clouds. Bulk kinetic energy is transformed to turbulence with stars forming from cores fed by filaments. In the most compact regions, stellar feedback is least effective in removing the gas and stars may form very efficiently. These are also the regions where, in high-mass clusters, ejecta from some kind of high-mass stars are effectively captured during the formation phase of some of the low mass stars and channeled into the latter to form multiple populations. Star formation epochs in star clusters are generally set by gas flows that determine the abundance of gas in the cluster. We argue that there is likely only one star formation epoch after which clusters remain essentially clear of gas by cluster winds. Collisional dynamics is important in this phase leading to core collapse, expansion and eventual dispersion of every cluster. We review recent developments in the field with a focus on theoretical work.

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Notes

  1. \(\Phi \): gravitational potential, \(r\): radius, \(\rho \): gas density, \(p\): pressure.

  2. \(M\): cluster mass, \(\mu \): mean molecular weight.

  3. \(k_{\mathrm{B}}\): Boltzmann constant, T: temperature, n: particle density, \(\Lambda \): cooling function.

  4. \(r_{\mathrm{h}}\): half-mass radius, \(\sigma \): line-of sight velocity dispersion.

  5. \(\epsilon _{\mathrm{SF}}\): stellar mass \(M\) over total mass (stars + gas) of an embedded cluster.

  6. \(\dot{M}\): total mass loss rate; \(\dot{E}\) total energy release rate; \(V=4\pi r^{3}/3\).

  7. \(\gamma \): adiabatic index, \(5/3\) for the usual monatomic ideal gas.

  8. The single-mass approximation, therefore, also breaks down for globular clusters with a stellar-mass black hole population (Breen and Heggie 2013; Giersz et al. 2019; Kremer et al. 2019; Wang 2020; Antonini and Gieles 2020).

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Acknowledgements

This review emerged from a workshop at the International Space Science Institute in Bern, Switzerland in May 2019. The authors thank the staff of ISSI for their generous hospitality and creating the inspiring atmosphere that initiated this project. We thank the referee for a constructive report which has improved the manuscript.

Funding

J.M.D.K. gratefully acknowledges funding from the German Research Foundation (DFG) in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant number KR4801/1-1) and a DFG Sachbeihilfe Grant (grant number KR4801/2-1), from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement number 714907), and from Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 “The Milky Way System” (subproject B2) of the DFG. S.S.R.O. acknowledges funding from NSF Career grant AST-1650486. P.G. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council under ERC-CoG grant CRAGSMAN-646955.

R.S.K. acknowledges support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft via the SFB 881 “The Milky Way System” (subprojects B1, B2, and B8) as well as funding from the Heidelberg Cluster of Excellence STRUCTURES in the framework of Germany’s Excellence Strategy (grant EXC-2181/1-390900948).

JBP acknowledges UNAM-DGAPA-PAPIIT support through grant number IN-111-219.

MG acknowledges support from the ERC (CLUSTERS, StG-335936).

E.V.-S. acknowledges financial support from CONACYT grant 255295.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Astrophysics Research, School of Physics, Astronomy and Mathematics, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL10 9AB, UK

    Martin G. H. Krause

  2. Department of Astronomy, The University of Texas, Austin, TX, 78712, USA

    Stella S. R. Offner

  3. Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, Chemin de Pegase 51, 1290, Versoix, Switzerland

    Corinne Charbonnel

  4. IRAP, CNRS & Univ. of Toulouse, 14, av. E. Belin, 31400, Toulouse, France

    Corinne Charbonnel

  5. Institut de Ciències del Cosmos (ICCUB-IEEC), Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1, 08028, Barcelona, Spain

    Mark Gieles

  6. ICREA, Pg. Lluis Companys 23, 08010, Barcelona, Spain

    Mark Gieles

  7. Zentrum für Astronomie, Institut für Theoretische Astrophysik, Universität Heidelberg, Albert-Ueberle-Str. 2, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany

    Ralf S. Klessen

  8. Instituto de Radioastronomía y Astrofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Méxíco, Campus Morelia, Apdo. Postal 3-72, Morelia, 58089, México

    Enrique Vázquez-Semadeni & Javier Ballesteros-Paredes

  9. Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik (AIP), An der Sternwarte 16, 14482, Potsdam, Germany

    Philipp Girichidis

  10. Astronomisches Rechen-Institut, Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg, Mönchhofstraße 12-14, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany

    J. M. Diederik Kruijssen & Jacob L. Ward

  11. Nucleo de Astroquimica y Astrofisica, Universidad Autonoma de Chile, Avda Pedro de Valdivia 425, Providencia, Santiago de Chile, Chile

    Hans Zinnecker

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  1. Martin G. H. Krause
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Correspondence to Martin G. H. Krause.

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Star Formation

Edited by Andrei Bykov, Corinne Charbonnel, Patrick Hennebelle, Alexandre Marcowith, Georges Meynet, Maurizio Falanga and Rudolf von Steiger

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Krause, M.G.H., Offner, S.S.R., Charbonnel, C. et al. The Physics of Star Cluster Formation and Evolution. Space Sci Rev 216, 64 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00689-4

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00689-4

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