Abstract
Exoplanet detection missions have found thousands of planets or planet candidates outside of the Solar System—some of which are in the habitable zone, where liquid water is possible at the surface. We give an overview of the recent progress in observations of water-rich exoplanets, detection of water in the atmosphere of gas giants and less-massive targets, and modelling of the interior and evolution of water layers in exoplanets. We summarise the possible habitability of water-rich planets and discuss the potential of future missions and telescopes towards the detection of water in the atmosphere of low-mass exoplanets or on their surface.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Y. Alibert, On the radius of habitable planets. Astron. Astrophys. 561, 41 (2014)
G. Anglada-Escudé, B. Rojas-Ayala, A.P. Boss, A.J. Weinberger, J.P. Lloyd, Gj 1214 reviewed-trigonometric parallax, stellar parameters, new orbital solution, and bulk properties for the super-Earth gj 1214b. Astron. Astrophys. 551, 48 (2013)
A. Baglin, M. Auvergne, L. Boisnard, T. Lam-Trong, P. Barge, C. Catala, M. Deleuil, E. Michel, W. Weiss, CoRoT: a high precision photometer for stellar ecolution and exoplanet finding, in 36th COSPAR Scientific Assembly, vol. 36 (2006), p. 3749
T.S. Barman, Q.M. Konopacky, B. Macintosh, C. Marois, Simultaneous detection of water, methane, and carbon monoxide in the atmosphere of exoplanet HR8799b. Astrophys. J. 804, 61 (2015). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/804/1/61
N.M. Batalha, W.J. Borucki, S.T. Bryson, L.A. Buchhave, D.A. Caldwell, J. Christensen-Dalsgaard, D. Ciardi, E.W. Dunham, F. Fressin, T.N. Gautier III et al., Kepler’s first rocky planet: Kepler-10b based in part on observations obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated by the University of California and the California Institute of Technology. Astrophys. J. 729(1), 27 (2011)
J.L. Birkby, R.J. de Kok, M. Brogi, E.J.W. de Mooij, H. Schwarz, S. Albrecht, I.A.G. Snellen, Detection of water absorption in the day side atmosphere of HD 189733 b using ground-based high-resolution spectroscopy at 3.2 μm. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 436, 35–39 (2013). doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slt107
P.J. Boston, M.V. Ivanov, C.P. McKay, On the possibility of chemosynthetic ecosystems in subsurface habitats on mars. Icarus 95(2), 300–308 (1992)
C. Broeg, A. Fortier, D. Ehrenreich, Y. Alibert, W. Baumjohann, W. Benz, M. Deleuil, M. Gillon, A. Ivanov, R. Liseau et al., CHEOPS: a transit photometry mission for ESA’s small mission programme, in EPJ Web of Conferences, vol. 47 (EDP Sciences, London, 2013), p. 3005
M. Brogi, R.J. de Kok, J.L. Birkby, H. Schwarz, I.A.G. Snellen, Carbon monoxide and water vapor in the atmosphere of the non-transiting exoplanet HD 179949 b. Astron. Astrophys. 565, 124 (2014). doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423537
M.A. Bullock, D.H. Grinspoon, The recent evolution of climate on venus. Icarus 150, 19–37 (2001). doi:10.1006/icar.2000.6570
J. Cabrera, H. Bruntt, M. Ollivier, R. Díaz, S. Csizmadia, S. Aigrain, R. Alonso, J.-M. Almenara, M. Auvergne, A. Baglin et al., Transiting exoplanets from the CoRoT space mission—XIII. CoRoT-13b: a dense hot jupiter in transit around a star with solar metallicity and super-solar lithium content. Astron. Astrophys. 522, 110 (2010)
A.C. Cameron, K. Horne, A. Penny, D. James, Probable detection of starlight reflected from the giant planet orbiting \(\tau\) Boötis. Nature 402, 751–755 (1999). doi:10.1038/45451
D. Charbonneau, T.M. Brown, R.W. Noyes, R.L. Gilliland, Detection of an extrasolar planet atmosphere. Astrophys. J. 568, 377–384 (2002). doi:10.1086/338770
D. Charbonneau, L.E. Allen, S.T. Megeath, G. Torres, R. Alonso, T.M. Brown, R.L. Gilliland, D.W. Latham, G. Mandushev, F.T. O’Donovan, A. Sozzetti, Detection of thermal emission from an extrasolar planet. Astrophys. J. 626, 523–529 (2005). doi:10.1086/429991
D. Charbonneau, H.A. Knutson, T. Barman, L.E. Allen, M. Mayor, S.T. Megeath, D. Queloz, S. Udry, The broadband infrared emission spectrum of the exoplanet HD 189733b. Astrophys. J. 686, 1341–1348 (2008). doi:10.1086/591635
D. Charbonneau, Z.K. Berta, J. Irwin, C.J. Burke, P. Nutzman et al., A super-Earth transiting a nearby low-mass star. Nature 462, 891–894 (2009)
C. Cockell, T. Bush, C. Bryce, S. Direito, M. Fox-Powell, J. Harrison, H. Lammer, H. Landenmark, J. Martin-Torres, N. Nicholson et al., Habitability: a review. Astrobiology 16(1), 89–117 (2016)
T. Currie, P. Hinz, Y. Itoh, M. Fukagawa, V. Bailey, T.J. Rodigas, D. Fabrycky, R. Murray-Clay, Direct imaging of the brown dwarf/planet-mass companions to HR 8799 and GJ 758 from 1 to 5 microns: constraints on atmospheric properties, in In the Spirit of Lyot 2010 (2010)
C. Darwin, On the Origin of Species (John Murray, London, 1859), p. 490
M. Deleuil, A. Bonomo, S. Ferraz-Mello, A. Erikson, F. Bouchy, M. Havel, S. Aigrain, J.-M. Almenara, R. Alonso, M. Auvergne et al., Transiting exoplanets from the CoRoT space mission—XX. CoRoT-20b: a very high density, high eccentricity transiting giant planet. Astron. Astrophys. 538, 145 (2012)
D. Deming, S. Seager, L.J. Richardson, J. Harrington, Infrared radiation from an extrasolar planet. Nature 434, 740–743 (2005). doi:10.1038/nature03507
D. Deming, A. Wilkins, P. McCullough, A. Burrows, J.J. Fortney, E. Agol, I. Dobbs-Dixon, N. Madhusudhan, N. Crouzet, J.-M. Desert, R.L. Gilliland, K. Haynes, H.A. Knutson, M. Line, Z. Magic, A.M. Mandell, S. Ranjan, D. Charbonneau, M. Clampin, S. Seager, A.P. Showman, Infrared transmission spectroscopy of the exoplanets HD 209458b and XO-1b using the Wide Field Camera-3 on the Hubble Space Telescope. Astrophys. J. 774, 95 (2013). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/774/2/95
C. Dorn, A. Khan, K. Heng, J.A.D. Connolly, Y. Alibert, W. Benz, P. Tackley, Can we constrain the interior structure of rocky exoplanets from mass and radius measurements? Astron. Astrophys. 577(183), 1–18 (2015)
C.D. Dressing, D. Charbonneau, X. Dumusque et al., The mass of Kepler-93b and the composition of terrestrial planets. Astrophys. J. 800(2), 135 (2015)
A.M. Dziewonski, D.L. Anderson, Preliminary reference Earth model. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 25(4), 297–356 (1981)
B.J. Foley, The role of plate tectonic–climate coupling and exposed land area in the development of habitable climates on rocky planets. Astrophys. J. 812(1), 36 (2015)
J. Fraine, D. Deming, B. Benneke, H. Knutson, A. Jordán, N. Espinoza, N. Madhusudhan, A. Wilkins, K. Todorov, Water vapour absorption in the clear atmosphere of a Neptune-sized exoplanet. Nature 513, 526–529 (2014). doi:10.1038/nature13785
Y. Fujii, H. Kawahara, Y. Suto, A. Taruya, S. Fukuda, T. Nakajima, E.L. Turner, Colors of a second Earth: estimating the fractional areas of ocean, land, and vegetation of Earth-like exoplanets. Astrophys. J. 715(2), 866 (2010)
T. Gold, The deep, hot biosphere. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89(13), 6045–6049 (1992)
O. Grasset, J. Schneider, C. Sotin, A study of the accuracy of mass–radius relationships for silicate-rich and ice-rich planets up to 100 Earth masses. Astrophys. J. 693, 722–733 (2009)
C.J. Grillmair, A. Burrows, D. Charbonneau, L. Armus, J. Stauffer, V. Meadows, J. van Cleve, K. von Braun, D. Levine, Strong water absorption in the dayside emission spectrum of the planet HD189733b. Nature 456, 767–769 (2008). doi:10.1038/nature07574
P.M. Grindrod, A.D. Fortes, F. Nimmo, D.L. Feltham, J.P. Brodholt, L. Vocadlo, The long-term stability of a possible aqueous ammonium sulfate ocean inside Titan. Icarus 197, 137–151 (2008)
I. Halevy, J.W. Head III, Episodic warming of early mars by punctuated volcanism. Nat. Geosci. 7(12), 865–868 (2014)
M.H. Hart, Habitable zones about main sequence stars. Icarus 37, 351–357 (1979). doi:10.1016/0019-1035(79)90141-6
A.P. Hatzes, H. Rauer, A definition for giant planets based on the mass–density relationship. Astrophys. J. Lett. 810(2), 25 (2015)
J. Helbert, E. Hauber, D. Reiss, Water on the terrestrial planets, in Treatise on Geophysics, Volume 10: Physics of Terrestrial Planets and Moons, 2nd edn. (Springer, Dordrecht, 2015), pp. 367–409. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53802-4.00174-3
C.E. Hinchliff et al., Synthesis of phylogeny and taxonomy into a comprehensive tree of life. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112(41), 12764–12769 (2015). doi:10.1073/pnas.1423041112
D. Höning, H. Hansen-Goos, A. Airo, T. Spohn, Biotic vs. abiotic Earth: a model for mantle hydration and continental coverage. Planet. Space Sci. 98, 5–13 (2014)
S.B. Howell, C. Sobeck, M. Haas, M. Still, T. Barclay, F. Mullally, J. Troeltzsch, S. Aigrain, S.T. Bryson, D. Caldwell et al., The k2 mission: characterisation and early results. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 126(938), 398 (2014)
L. Iess, R.A. Jacobson, M. Ducci, D.J. Stevenson, J.I. Lunine, J.W. Armstrong, S.W. Asmar, P. Racioppa, N.J. Rappaport, P. Tortora, The tides of Titan. Science 337(6093), 457–459 (2012). doi:10.1126/science.1219631
J.M. Jenkins, J.D. Twicken, N.M. Batalha, D.A. Caldwell, W.D. Cochran, M. Endl, D.W. Latham, G.A. Esquerdo, S. Seader, A. Bieryla et al., Discovery and validation of Kepler-452b: a 1.6 R? Super Earth exoplanet in the habitable zone of a g2 star. Astron. J. 150(2), 56 (2015)
J.F. Kasting, D.P. Whitmire, R.T. Reynolds, Habitable zones around main sequence stars. Icarus 101, 108–128 (1993). doi:10.1006/icar.1993.1010
K. Khurana, M. Kivelson, D. Stevenson, G. Schubert, C. Russell, R. Walker, C. Polanskey, Induced magnetic fields as evidence for subsurface oceans in Europa and Callisto. Nature 395(6704), 777–780 (1998)
D. Kitzmann, Y. Alibert, M. Godolt, J.L. Grenfell, K. Heng, A. Patzer, H. Rauer, B. Stracke, P. von Paris, The unstable CO2 feedback cycle on ocean planets. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 452(4), 3752–3758 (2015)
M. Kivelson, K. Khurana, M. Volwerk, The permanent and inductive magnetic moments of Ganymede. Icarus 157(2), 507–522 (2002)
H.A. Knutson, D. Charbonneau, L.E. Allen, J.J. Fortney, E. Agol, N.B. Cowan, A.P. Showman, C.S. Cooper, S.T. Megeath, A map of the day-night contrast of the extrasolar planet HD 189733b. Nature 447, 183–186 (2007). doi:10.1038/nature05782
H.A. Knutson, D. Dragomir, L. Kreidberg, E.M.-R. Kempton, P.R. McCullough, J.J. Fortney, J.L. Bean, M. Gillon, D. Homeier, A.W. Howard, Hubble Space Telescope Near-IR transmission spectroscopy of the super-Earth HD 97658b. Astrophys. J. 794, 155 (2014). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/794/2/155
D.G. Koch, W.J. Borucki, G. Basri, N.M. Batalha, T.M. Brown, D. Caldwell, J. Christensen-Dalsgaard, W.D. Cochran, E. DeVore, E.W. Dunham et al., Kepler mission design, realized photometric performance, and early science. Astrophys. J. Lett. 713(2), 79 (2010)
Q.M. Konopacky, T.S. Barman, B.A. Macintosh, C. Marois, Detection of carbon monoxide and water absorption lines in an exoplanet atmosphere. Science 339, 1398–1401 (2013). doi:10.1126/science.1232003
R.K. Kopparapu, R. Ramirez, J.F. Kasting, V. Eymet, T.D. Robinson, S. Mahadevan, R.C. Terrien, S. Domagal-Goldman, V. Meadows, R. Deshpande, Habitable zones around main-sequence stars: new estimates. Astrophys. J. 765, 131 (2013). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/765/2/131
L. Kreidberg, J.L. Bean, J.-M. Désert, M.R. Line, J.J. Fortney, N. Madhusudhan, K.B. Stevenson, A.P. Showman, D. Charbonneau, P.R. McCullough, S. Seager, A. Burrows, G.W. Henry, M. Williamson, T. Kataria, D. Homeier, A precise water abundance measurement for the Hot Jupiter WASP-43b. Astrophys. J. Lett. 793, 27 (2014a). doi:10.1088/2041-8205/793/2/L27
L. Kreidberg, J.L. Bean, J.-M. Désert, B. Benneke, D. Deming, K.B. Stevenson, S. Seager, Z. Berta-Thompson, A. Seifahrt, D. Homeier, Clouds in the atmosphere of the super-Earth exoplanet GJ1214b. Nature 505, 69–72 (2014b). doi:10.1038/nature12888
M.J. Kuchner, Volatile-rich Earth-mass planets in the habitable zone. Astrophys. J. 596, 105–108 (2003)
A.-M. Lagrange, M. Bonnefoy, G. Chauvin, D. Apai, D. Ehrenreich, A. Boccaletti, D. Gratadour, D. Rouan, D. Mouillet, S. Lacour, M. Kasper, A giant planet imaged in the disk of the young star \(\beta\) Pictoris. Science 329, 57 (2010). doi:10.1126/science.1187187
H. Lammer, J.H. Bredehöft, A. Coustenis et al., What makes a planet habitable? Astron. Astrophys. 17, 181–249 (2009)
H. Lammer, A. Stökl, N.V. Erkaev, E.A. Dorfi, P. Odert et al., Origin and loss of nebula-captured hydrogen envelopes from ‘sub’- to ‘super-Earths’ in the habitable zone of Sun-like stars. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 439(4), 3225–3238 (2014)
H. Lammer, N. Erkaev, L. Fossati, I. Juvan, P. Odert, P. Cubillos, E. Guenther, K. Kislyakova, C. Johnstone, T. Lüftinger et al., Identifying the “true” radius of the hot sub-Neptune CoRoT-24b by mass loss modelling. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 461(1, slw095), 62–66 (2016)
G. Laughlin, J.J. Lissauer, Exoplanetary geophysics—an emerging discipline (2015). arXiv:1501.05685
A. Léger, F. Selsis, C. Sotin et al., A new family of planets? ’Ocean-Planets’. Icarus 169(2), 499–504 (2004)
A. Léger, D. Rouan, J. Schneider, P. Barge, M. Fridlund et al., Transiting exoplanets from the CoRoT space mission. VIII. CoRoT-7b: the first super-Earth with measured radius. Astron. Astrophys. 506, 287–302 (2009). doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200911933
J.J. Lissauer, D.C. Fabrycky, E.B. Ford et al., A closely packed system of low-mass, low-density planets transiting Kepler-11. Nature 470, 53–58 (2011). doi:10.1038/nature09760
A.C. Lockwood, J.A. Johnson, C.F. Bender, J.S. Carr, T. Barman, A.J.W. Richert, G.A. Blake, Near-IR direct detection of water vapor in Tau Boötis b. Astrophys. J. Lett. 783, 29 (2014). doi:10.1088/2041-8205/783/2/L29
R. Luger, R. Barnes, E. Lopez, J. Fortney, B. Jackson, V. Meadows, Habitable evaporated cores: transforming mini-Neptunes into super-Earths in the habitable zones of M Dwarfs. Astrobiology 15, 57–88 (2015). doi:10.1089/ast.2014.1215
A.M. Mandell, K. Haynes, E. Sinukoff, N. Madhusudhan, A. Burrows, D. Deming, Exoplanet transit spectroscopy using WFC3: WASP-12 b, WASP-17 b, and WASP-19 b. Astrophys. J. 779, 128 (2013). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/779/2/128
G.W. Marcy, R.P. Butler, A planetary companion to 70 Virginis. Astrophys. J. Lett. 464, 147 (1996). doi:10.1086/310096
G.W. Marcy, H. Isaacson, A.W. Howard, J.F. Rowe, J.M. Jenkins et al., Masses, radii, and orbits of small Kepler planets: the transition from gaseous to rocky planets. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 210, 20–70 (2014)
C. Marois, B. Macintosh, T. Barman, B. Zuckerman, I. Song, J. Patience, D. Lafrenière, R. Doyon, Direct imaging of multiple planets orbiting the star HR 8799. Science 322, 1348 (2008). doi:10.1126/science.1166585
S. Maruyama, M. Ikoma, H. Genda et al., The naked planet Earth: most essential pre-requisite for the origin and evolution of life. Geosci. Front. 4, 141–165 (2013)
M. Mayor, D. Queloz, A Jupiter-mass companion to a solar-type star. Nature 378, 355 (1995). doi:10.1038/378355a0
P.R. McCullough, N. Crouzet, D. Deming, N. Madhusudhan, Water vapor in the spectrum of the extrasolar planet HD 189733b. I. The transit. Astrophys. J. 791, 55 (2014). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/791/1/55
C.P. McKay, W.L. Davis, Duration of liquid water habitats on early Mars. Icarus 90(2), 214–221 (1991)
J. Milli, D. Mouillet, D. Mawet, H.M. Schmid, A. Bazzon, J.H. Girard, K. Dohlen, R. Roelfsema, Prospects of detecting the polarimetric signature of the Earth-mass planet \(\alpha\) Centauri B b with SPHERE/ZIMPOL. Astron. Astrophys. 556, 64 (2013). doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321881
P. Montanes-Rodriguez, E. Palle, P.R. Goode, F.J. Martin-Torres, Vegetation signature in the observed globally integrated spectrum of Earth considering simultaneous cloud data: applications for extrasolar planets. Astrophys. J. 651(1), 544 (2006)
C. Mordasini, Y. Alibert, H. Klahr, T. Henning, Characterization of exoplanets from their formation—I. Models of combined planet formation and evolution. Astron. Astrophys. 547, 111 (2012a)
C. Mordasini, Y. Alibert, W. Benz, H. Klahr, T. Henning, Extrasolar planet population synthesis—IV. Correlations with disk metallicity, mass, and lifetime. Astron. Astrophys. 541, 97 (2012b)
N. Nettelmann, J. Fortney, U. Kramm, R. Redmer, Thermal evolution and structure models of the transiting super-Earth gj 1214b. Astrophys. J. 733(1), 2 (2011)
L. Noack, D. Breuer, Interior and surface dynamics of terrestrial bodies and their implications for the habitability, in Habitability on Other Planets and Satellites: The Quest for Extraterrestrial Life, ed. by J.-P. de Vera, F. Seckbach (Springer, Dordrecht, 2013), pp. 203–233
L. Noack, D. Breuer, Plate tectonics on rocky exoplanets: influence of initial conditions and rheology. Planet. Space Sci. 98, 41–49 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.pss.2013.06.020
L. Noack, M. Godolt, P. von Paris, A. Plesa, B. Stracke, D. Breuer, H. Rauer, Constraints for planetary habitability from interior modeling. Planet. Space Sci. 98, 14–29 (2014)
L. Noack, D. Höning, A. Rivoldini, C. Heistracher, N. Zimov, B. Journaux, H. Lammer, T.V. Hoolst, J.H. Bredehöft, Water-rich planets: how habitable is a water layer deeper than on Earth? Icarus 277, 215–236 (2016). doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.05.009
L. Noack, D. Höning, A. Rivoldini, C. Heistracher, N. Zimov, B. Journaux, H. Lammer, T. Van Hoolst, J.H. Bredehöft, Water-rich planets: how habitable is a water layer deeper than on Earth? Icarus 277, 215–236 (2017)
R. Parai, S. Mukhopadhyay, How large is the subducted water flux? New constraints on mantle regassing rates. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 317, 396–406 (2012)
S. Ramsay, M. Casali, J. González, N. Hubin, The E-ELT instrument roadmap: a status report, in SPIE Astronomical Telescopes+ Instrumentation (SPIE, Bellingham, 2014), p. 91471
H. Rauer, C. Catala, C. Aerts et al., The PLATO 2.0 mission. Exp. Astron. 38(1-2), 249–330 (2014). doi:10.1007/s10686-014-9383-4
P. Riaud, J. Schneider, Improving Earth-like planets’ detection with an ELT: the differential radial velocity experiment. Astron. Astrophys. 469, 355–361 (2007). doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077085
G.R. Ricker, J.N. Winn, R. Vanderspek, D.W. Latham, G.Á. Bakos et al., Transiting exoplanet survey satellite (tess). Proc. SPIE 9143(914320), 15 (2014)
G.R. Ricker, J.N. Winn, R. Vanderspek, D.W. Latham, G.Á. Bakos, J.L. Bean, Z.K. Berta-Thompson, T.M. Brown, L. Buchhave, N.R. Butler et al., Transiting exoplanet survey satellite. J. Astron. Telesc. Instrum. Syst. 1(1), 014003 (2015)
L.A. Rogers, Most 1.6 Earth-radius planets are not rocky. Astrophys. J. 801(1), 41 (2015)
L. Rogers, S. Seager, Three possible origins for the gas layer on gj 1214b. Astrophys. J. 716(2), 1208 (2010)
L. Roth, J. Saur, K.D. Retherford, D.F. Strobel, P.D. Feldman, M.A. McGrath, F. Nimmo, Transient water vapor at Europa’s South pole. Science 343(6167), 171–174 (2014)
P.A. Sabelhaus, J.E. Decker, An overview of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) project, in SPIE Astronomical Telescopes+ Instrumentation (SPIE, Bellingham, 2004), pp. 550–563
N.C. Santos, V. Adibekyan, C. Mordasini, W. Benz, E. Delgado-Mena, C. Dorn, L. Buchhave, P. Figueira, A. Mortier, F. Pepe, A. Santerne, S.G. Sousa, S. Udry, Constraining planet structure from stellar chemistry: the cases of CoRoT-7, Kepler-10, and Kepler-93. Astron. Astrophys. 580(L13), 1–5 (2015)
J. Saur, S. Duling, L. Roth, X. Jia, D.F. Strobel, P.D. Feldman, U.R. Christensen, K.D. Retherford, M.A. McGrath, F. Musacchio et al., The search for a subsurface ocean in Ganymede with Hubble Space Telescope observations of its auroral ovals. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 120(3), 1715–1737 (2015)
L. Schaefer, D. Sasselov, The persistence of oceans on Earth-like planets: insights from the deep-water cycle. Astrophys. J. 801(1), 40 (2015)
G. Schubert, D.L. Turcotte, P. Olson, Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets (Cambridge University Press, New York, 2001)
H. Schwarz, M. Brogi, R. de Kok, J. Birkby, I. Snellen, Measuring the spin of the directly imaged sub-stellar companion GQ Lupi b, in AAS/Division for Extreme Solar Systems Abstracts, vol. 3 (2015), pp. 104–114
S. Seager, Exoplanet habitability. Science 340, 577–581 (2013)
D.K. Sing, J.J. Fortney, N. Nikolov, H.R. Wakeford, T. Kataria, T.M. Evans, S. Aigrain, G.E. Ballester, A.S. Burrows, D. Deming, J.-M. Désert, N.P. Gibson, G.W. Henry, C.M. Huitson, H.A. Knutson, A.L.D. Etangs, F. Pont, A.P. Showman, A. Vidal-Madjar, M.H. Williamson, P.A. Wilson, A continuum from clear to cloudy hot-Jupiter exoplanets without primordial water depletion. Nature 529, 59–62 (2016). doi:10.1038/nature16068
W. Skidmore, TMT International Science Development Teams, TMT Science Advisory Committee, Thirty meter telescope detailed science case: 2015. Res. Astron. Astrophys. 15(12), 1945 (2015). http://stacks.iop.org/1674-4527/15/i=12/a=1945
I.A.G. Snellen, R.J. de Kok, E.J.W. de Mooij, S. Albrecht, The orbital motion, absolute mass and high-altitude winds of exoplanet HD209458b. Nature 465, 1049–1051 (2010). doi:10.1038/nature09111
I.A.G. Snellen, B.R. Brandl, R.J. de Kok, M. Brogi, J. Birkby, H. Schwarz, Fast spin of the young extrasolar planet \(\beta\) Pictoris b. Nature 509, 63–65 (2014). doi:10.1038/nature13253
I. Snellen, R. de Kok, J.L. Birkby, B. Brandl, M. Brogi, C. Keller, M. Kenworthy, H. Schwarz, R. Stuik, Combining high-dispersion spectroscopy with high contrast imaging: probing rocky planets around our nearest neighbors. Astron. Astrophys. 576, 59 (2015). doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425018
C. Sotin, O. Grasset, A. Mocquet, Mass–radius curve for extrasolar Earth-like planets and ocean planets. Icarus 191(1), 337–351 (2007)
W.B. Sparks, H.C. Ford, Imaging spectroscopy for extrasolar planet detection. Astrophys. J. 578, 543–564 (2002). doi:10.1086/342401
V. Stamenković, D. Breuer, The tectonic mode of rocky planets: Part 1—Driving factors, models & parameters. Icarus 234, 174–193 (2014)
C. Stein, J.P. Lowman, U. Hansen, The influence of mantle internal heating on lithospheric mobility: implications for super-Earths. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 361, 448–459 (2013)
D.J. Stevenson, Life-sustaining planets in interstellar space? Nature 400(6739), 32 (1999)
M.R. Swain, G. Vasisht, G. Tinetti, The presence of methane in the atmosphere of an extrasolar planet. Nature 452, 329–331 (2008). doi:10.1038/nature06823
P. Thomas, R. Tajeddine, M. Tiscareno, J. Burns, J. Joseph, T. Loredo, P. Helfenstein, C. Porco, Enceladus’s measured physical libration requires a global subsurface ocean. Icarus 264, 37–47 (2016)
G. Tinetti, A. Vidal-Madjar, M.-C. Liang, J.-P. Beaulieu, Y. Yung, S. Carey, R.J. Barber, J. Tennyson, I. Ribas, N. Allard, G.E. Ballester, D.K. Sing, F. Selsis, Water vapour in the atmosphere of a transiting extrasolar planet. Nature 448, 169–171 (2007). doi:10.1038/nature06002
C.T. Unterborn, E.E. Dismukes, W.R. Panero, Scaling the Earth: a sensitivity analysis of terrestrial exoplanetary interior models. Astrophys. J. 819(1), 32 (2016)
D. Valencia, R.J. O’Connell, D.D. Sasselov, Internal structure of massive terrestrial planets. Icarus 181, 545–554 (2006)
D. Valencia, R.J. O’Connell, D.D. Sasselov, Inevitability of plate tectonics on super-Earths. Astrophys. J. 670, 45–48 (2007)
D. Valencia, T. Guillot, V. Parmentier, R.S. Freedman, Bulk composition of gj 1214b and other sub-Neptune exoplanets. Astrophys. J. 775(1), 10 (2013)
H.J. van Heck, P.J. Tackley, Plate tectonics on super-Earths: equally or more likely than on Earth. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 310, 252–261 (2011)
T. Van Hoolst, R.-M. Baland, A. Trinh, The diurnal libration and interior structure of Enceladus. Icarus 277, 311–318 (2016)
S. Vance, M. Bouffard, M. Choukroun, C. Sotin, Ganymede’s internal structure including thermodynamics of magnesium sulfate oceans in contact with ice. Planet. Space Sci. 96, 62–70 (2014)
S. Vance, K. Hand, R. Pappalardo, Geophysical controls of chemical disequilibria in Europa. Geophys. Res. Lett. 43(10), 4871–4879 (2016)
F.W. Wagner, N. Tosi, F. Sohl, H. Rauer, T. Spohn, Rocky super-Earth interiors structure and internal dynamics of CoRoT-7b and Kepler-10b. Astron. Astrophys. 541, 103 (2012)
H.R. Wakeford, D.K. Sing, D. Deming, N.P. Gibson, J.J. Fortney, A.S. Burrows, G. Ballester, N. Nikolov, S. Aigrain, G. Henry, H. Knutson, A. Lecavelier des Etangs, F. Pont, A.P. Showman, A. Vidal-Madjar, K. Zahnle, HST hot Jupiter transmission spectral survey: detection of water in HAT-P-1b from WFC3 near-IR spatial scan observations. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 435, 3481–3493 (2013). doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1536
J.C.G. Walker, P.B. Hays, J.F. Kasting, A negative feedback mechanism for the long-term stabilization of the Earth’s surface temperature. J. Geophys. Res. 86, 9776–9782 (1981)
C.R. Webster, P.R. Mahaffy, S.K. Atreya, G.J. Flesch, M.A. Mischna, P.-Y. Meslin, K.A. Farley, P.G. Conrad, L.E. Christensen, A.A. Pavlov et al., Mars methane detection and variability at Gale crater. Science 347, 415–417 (2015). doi:10.1126/science.1261713
F. Westall, A. Brack, The importance of water for life. Space Sci. Rev. (2017, in review)
A. Wolszczan, D.A. Frail, A planetary system around the millisecond pulsar psr1257 + 12. Nature 355, 145–147 (1992)
C. Zimmer, K.K. Khurana, M.G. Kivelson, Subsurface oceans on Europa and Callisto: constraints from Galileo magnetometer observations. Icarus 147(2), 329–347 (2000)
Acknowledgements
L. Noack has been funded by the Interuniversity Attraction Poles Programme initiated by the Belgian Science Policy Office through the Planet Topers alliance.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
The Delivery of Water to Protoplanets, Planets and Satellites
Edited by Michel Blanc, Allessandro Morbidelli, Yann Alibert, Lindy Elkins-Tanton, Paul Estrada, Keiko Hamano, Helmut Lammer, Sean Raymond and Maria Schönbächler
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Noack, L., Snellen, I. & Rauer, H. Water in Extrasolar Planets and Implications for Habitability. Space Sci Rev 212, 877–898 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-017-0413-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-017-0413-1