Abstract
Bridging just world theory and legal socialization research, this study looks at preadolescents’ perceptions of justice across race, income, and education, and how these relate to perceptions of the law and legal cynicism. This article takes a novel approach to belief in a just world (BJW) research by analyzing the difference between personal and general BJW: Just World Gap. Drawing from a Brazilian preadolescent sample (n = 742, age = 12), results revealed significant differences between education and income brackets, with the Just World Gap being significantly higher in more privileged groups. The Just World Gap had stronger effect sizes across demographic variables than either BJW separately. Partial correlations were conducted controlling for education and income between BJWs (personal and general), Just World Gap, and perceptions of the law and legal cynicism. Results indicated that personal and general BJW were more strongly correlated with items concerning how people view the law, but legal cynicism items were more strongly correlated with the Just World Gap. This reveals the Just World Gap to be a relevant construct in studying the legal socialization and legal cynicism. Results highlight important theoretical considerations for legal socialization and BJW research.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
References
BBC News. (2018). Brazilian corruption scandals: All you need to know. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-35810578.
Bègue, L. (2002). Belief in justice and faith in people: Just world, religiosity, and interpersonal trust. Personality and Individual Differences,32(3), 375–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00224-5.
Bègue, L., & Bastounis, M. (2003). Two spheres of belief in justice: Extensive support for the dimensional model of belief in a just world. Journal of Personality,71(3), 435–463. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.7103007.
Bègue, L., & Muller, D. (2006). Belief in a just world as moderator of hostile attributional bias. British Journal of Social Psychology,45, 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466605X37314.
Bermudez, A. C. (2017). Mais de 60% dos jovens fora da escolar no Brasil tem 15-17 anos [More than 60% of youth out of school in Brazil are between 15-17 years old]. UOL, São Paulo. Retrieved from https://educacao.uol.com.br/listas/mais-de-60-dos-jovens-fora-da-escola-no-brasil-tem-de-15-a-17-anos.html.
Berwick, C. (2015). The great German school turnaround. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/11/great-german-scool-turnaround/413806/.
Bloomberg (2018). USD:BRL conversion rate. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/quote/USDBRL:CUR.
Campbell, D., Carr, S. C., & MacLachlan, M. (2001). Attributing “third world poverty” in Australia and Malawi: A case of donor bias? Journal of Applied Social Psychology,31(2), 409–430. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb00203.x.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, N. J.: L. Erlbaum Associates.
Cohn, E., Bucolo, D., Rebellon, C., & Van Gundy, K. (2010). An integrated model of legal and moral reasoning and rule-violating behavior: The role of legal attitudes. Law and Human Behavior,34(4), 295–309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-009-9185-9.
Cohn, E., & White, S. (1990). Legal socialization: A study of norms and rules. New York: Springer.
Correia, I., & Dalbert, C. (2007). Belief in a just world, justice concerns, and well-being in Portuguese schools. European Journal of Psychology of Education,23(4), 421–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173464.
Correia, I., & Dalbert, C. (2008). School bullying: Belief in a personal just world of bullies, victims, and defenders. European Psychologist,13(4), 248–254. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.13.4.248.
Correia, I., Kamble, S. V., & Dalbert, C. (2009). Belief in a just world and well-being of bullies, victims and defenders: A study with Portuguese and Indian students. Anxiety Stress and Coping,22(5), 497–508. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800902729242.
Correia, I., & Vala, J. (2004). Belief in a just world, subjective well-being and trust of young adults. In C. Dalbert & H. Sallay (Eds.), The justice motive in adolescence and young adulthood: Origins and consequences (pp. 85–100). London: Routledge.
Cubela Adorić, V. (2004). Belief in a just world and young adults’ ways of coping with unemployment and the job search. In C. Dalbert & H. Sallay (Eds.), The justice motive in adolescence and young adulthood: Origins and consequences (pp. 189–214). London: Routledge.
Cubela Adoric, V., & Kvartuc, T. (2007). Effects of mobbing on justice beliefs and adjustment. European Psychologist,12(4), 261–271. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.12.4.261.
Dalbert, C. (1999). The world is more just for me than generally: About the personal belief in a Just World Scale’s validity. Social Justice Research,12, 79–98. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022091609047.
Dalbert, C. (2001). The justice motive as a personal resource: Dealing with challenges and critical life events. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Dalbert, C. (2002). Beliefs in a just world as a buffer against anger. Social Justice Research,15(2), 123–145. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019919822628.
Dalbert, C. (2009). Belief in a just world. In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (pp. 288–297). New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
Dalbert, C., & Dzuka, J. (2004). Belief in a just world, personality, and well-being of adolescents. In C. Dalbert & H. Sallay (Eds.), The justice motive in adolescents and young adulthood: Origins and consequences (pp. 101–116). London: Routledge.
Dalbert, C., & Sallay, H. (Eds.). (2004). The justice motive in adolescence and young adulthood: Origins and consequences. London: Routledge.
Dalbert, C., & Stoeber, J. (2006). The personal belief in a just world and domain-specific beliefs about justice at school and in the family: A longitudinal study with adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Development,30(3), 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025406063638.
Darling, N., Cumsille, P., & Martìnez, M. L. (2007). Adolescents’ as active agents in the socialization process: Legitimacy of parental authority and obligation to obey as predictors of obedience. Journal of Adolescence,30(2), 297–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.03.003.
Darling, N., Cumsille, P., & Martìnez, M. L. (2008). Individual differences in adolescents’ beliefs about the legitimacy of parental authority and their own obligation to obey. Child Development,79(4), 1103–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01178.x.
Dittmar, H., & Dickinson, J. (1993). The perceived relationship between the belief in a just world and sociopolitical ideology. Social Justice Research,6(3), 257–272. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01054461.
Donat, M., Umlauft, S., Dalbert, C., & Kamble, S. V. (2012). Belief in a just world, teacher justice, and bullying behavior. Aggressive Behavior,38(3), 185–193. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21421.
Donat, M., Wolgast, A., & Dalbert, C. (2018). Belief in a just world as a resource of victimized students. Social Justice Research,31(2), 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-018-0307-8.
Fagan, J., & Tyler, T. (2005). Legal socialization of children and adolescents. Social Justice Research,18(3), 217–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-005-6823-3.
Fine, A., & Cauffman, E. (2015). Race and justice system attitude formation during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology,1(4), 325–349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40865-015-0021-2.
Flanagan, C. A. (2004). Volunteerism, leadership, political socialization, and civic engagement. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 721–746). New York: Wiley.
Furnham, A. (2003). Belief in a just world: Research progress over the past decade. Personality and Individual Differences,34(5), 795–817. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00072-7.
Furnham, A., & Rajamanickam, R. (1992). The protestant work ethic and just world beliefs in Great Britain and India. International Journal of Psychology,27(6), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207599208246905.
Gamboa, L. F., & Waltenberg, F. D. (2012). Inequality of opportunity for educational achievement in Latin America: Evidence from PISA 2006-2009. Economics of Education Review,31(5), 694–708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.05.002.
Gonçalves, A. R. (2016). Crenca no mundo justo, engagement e burnout em trabalhadores [Just world belief, engagement and burnout among workers] (Master’s thesis). University of Lisbon, Portugal. Retrieved from https://repositorio.iscte-iul.pt/handle/10071/12660.
Hafer, C. L., & Bègue, L. (2005). Experimental research on just-world theory: Problems, development, and future challenges. Psychological Bulletin,131(1), 128–167. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.128.
Hafer, C. L., Bègue, L., Choma, B. L., & Dempsey, J. L. (2005). Belief in a just world and commitment to long-term deserved outcomes. Social Justice Research,18(4), 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-005-8569-3.
Hafer, C. L., & Sutton, R. (2016). Belief in a just world. In C. Sabbagh & M. Schmitt (Eds.), Handbook of social justice theory and research. New York: Springer.
Harper, D., & Manasse, P. R. (1992). The just world and the third world: British explanations for poverty abroad. Journal of Social Psychology,132(6), 783–785. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1992.9712107.
IBGE (2011). Características étnico-raciais da população: um estudo das categorias de classificação de cor ou raça. [Race and ethnicity characteristics of the population: a study of the categories of race or color classification.] Rio de Janeiro: IBGE. Available at: https://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/livros/liv49891.pdf.
IBGE (2018). PNAD Contínua—2012–2018. Características gerais dos moradores. [Continuous PNAD—2012-2018. General characteristics of population]. Retrieved from https://www.ibge.gov.br/en/statistics/social/population/18083-annual-dissemination-pnadc3.html?=&t=downloads.
IBGE - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. (2017). Síntese de indicadores sociais: uma análise das condições de vida da população brasileira. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE. Retrieved from https://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/livros/liv101459.pdf.
Justice, B., & Meares, T. L. (2014). How the criminal justice system educates citizens. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,651(1), 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716213502929.
Kiernan, P. (2015). Brazil’s Petrobras reports nearly $17 billion in asset and corruption charges. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from https://www.wsj.com/articles/brazils-petrobras-reports-nearly-17-billion-impairment-on-assets-corruption-1429744336.
Kirk, D. S., & Matsuda, M. (2011). Legal cynicism, collective efficacy, and the ecology of arrest. Criminology.,49(2), 443–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00226.x.
Kirk, D. S., & Papachristos, A. V. (2011). Cultural mechanisms and the persistence of neighborhood violence. American Journal of Sociology,116(4), 1190–1233. https://doi.org/10.1086/65575.
Lambert, A., Burroughs, T., & Nguyen, T. (1999). Perceptions of risk and the buffering hypothesis: The role of just world beliefs and right-wing authoritarianism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,25(6), 643–656. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299025006001.
Laurin, K., Fitzsimons, G. M., & Kay, A. C. (2011). Social disadvantage and the self-regulatory function of justice beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,100(1), 149–171. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021343.
Lerner, M. J. (1965). Evaluation of performance as a function of performer’s reward and attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,1(4), 355–360. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0021806.
Lerner, M. J. (1977). The justice motive: Some hypotheses as to its origins and forms. Journal of Personality,45(1), 1–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1977.tb00591.x.
Lerner, M. J. (1980). The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion. New York: Plenum Press.
Lerner, M. J. (2003). The justice motive: Where social psychologists found it, how they lost it, and why they may not find it again. Personality and Social Psychology Review,7(4), 388–399. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0704_10.
Lerner, M. J., & Miller, D. T. (1978). Just world research and the attribution process: Looking back and ahead. Psychological Bulletin,85(5), 1030–1051. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.85.5.1030.
Lerner, M. J., & Simmons, C. H. (1966). Observer’s reaction to the innocent victim: Compassion or rejection? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,4(2), 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023562.
Lipkus, I. M., Dalbert, C., & Siegler, I. C. (1996). The importance of distinguishing the belief in a just world for self versus for others: Implications for psychological well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,22(7), 666–677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167296227002.
Lipsey, M. W., & Cullen, F. T. (2007). The effectiveness of correctional rehabilitation: A review of systematic reviews. Annual Review of Law and Social Science,3, 297–320. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.3.081806.112833.
Long, G. T., & Lerner, M. J. (1974). Deserving, the “personal contract”, and altruistic behaviour by children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,29(4), 551–556. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036207.
Lopez-Medina, J., & Rodrigues, H. (2019). The effects of victimization and fear of crime on the legal socialization of young adolescents in São Paulo, Brazil. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology,63(8), 1148–1174. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X18818810.
Maes, J., & Schmitt, M. (2004). Transformation of the justice motive? Belief in a just world and its correlates in different age groups. In C. Dalbert & H. Sallay (Eds.), The justice motive in adolescence and young adulthood. Origins and consequences (pp. 64–82). London: Routledge.
Meares, T. L., Tyler, T. R., & Gardener, J. (2015). Lawful or fair? How cops and laypeople perceive good policing. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology,105(2), 297–344.
MEC. (2017). Censo Escolar [School Census]. Brasilia: Brasil. Retrieved from http://inep.gov.br/censo-escolar.
Messick, D. M., Bloom, S., Boldizar, J. P., & Samuelson, C. D. (1985). Why we are fairer than others. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,21(5), 480–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(85)90031-9.
Nivette, A. E., Eisner, M., Malti, T., & Ribeaud, D. (2015). The social and developmental antecedents of legal cynicism. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency,52(2), 270–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427814557038.
OECD. (2015). Education GPS: The world of education at your fingertips. Country profile: Brazil. Retrieved from http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=BRA&treshold=10&topic=PI.
Pimentel, C. E., Gouveia, V. V., Diniz, P. K., Saenz, D. P., Santos, A. V., & Vieira, I. S. (2010). Evidências de validade de construto e precisão da Escala Geral do Mundo Justo [Evidence of construct validity and reliability of the General Just World Scale]. Boletim de Psicologia,60(133), 167–180.
Piquero, A. R., Fagan, J., Mulvey, E. P., Steinberg, L., & Odgers, C. (2005). Developmental trajectories of legal socialization among serious adolescents offenders. Journal of Criminal Law Criminology,96(1), 267–298.
Programme for International Student Assessment. (2015). Results in focus. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf.
Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Rebellon, C., Manasse, M., Van Gundy, K., & Cohn, E. (2012). Perceived injustice and delinquency: A test of general strain theory. Journal of Criminal Justice,40(3), 230–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2012.02.001.
Reicher, S., & Emler, N. (1985). Delinquent behavior and attitudes to formal authority. British Journal of Social Psychology,24(3), 161–168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1985.tb00677.x.
Reisig, M. D., Scott, E. W., & Holtfreter, K. (2011). Legal cynicism, legitimacy, and criminal offending: The nonconfounding effect of low self-control. Criminal Justice and Behavior,38(12), 1265–1279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854811424707.
Rodrigues, H., & Gomes, A. M. M. (2017). Socialização legal e perfis de pré-adolescentes em São Paulo: Uma análise de correspondência [Legal socialization and profiles of early adolescents in São Paulo: An analysis of correspondence]. Critica e Sociedade,7(2), 181–206.
Rodrigues, H., Gomes, A. M. M., Veiga, D. P. B., Oliveira, R. T., & Brito, R. C. (2017). Socialização legal de crianças e adolescentes: Revisão da literatura e desafios de pesquisa [Legal socialization of children and adolescents: Literature review and research challenges]. Plural,24(1), 105–123. https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2176-8099.pcso.2017.127330.
Rubin, Z., & Peplau, L. A. (1975). Who believes in a just world? Journal of Social Issues,31(3), 64–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1975.tb00997.x.
Sadek, M. T. (2014). Acesso à justiça: um direito e seus obstáculos [Access to justice: the right and its obstacles]. Revista USP,101, 55–66. https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2316-9036.v0i101p55-66.
Sampson, R. J., & Bartusch, D. J. (1998). Legal cynicism and (subcultural?) tolerance of deviance: The neighborhood context of racial differences. Law & Society Review,32(4), 777–804. https://doi.org/10.2307/827739.
Savell, S. (2015). “I’m not a leader”: Cynicism and good citizenship in a Brazilian favela. Political & Legal Anthropology Review,38(2), 300–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/plar.12112.
Schönpflug, U., & Bilz, L. (2004). Transmission of the belief in a just world in the family. In C. Dalbert & H. Sallay (Eds.), The justice motive in adolescence and young adulthood: Origins and consequences (pp. 153–171). London: Routledge.
Sutton, R. M., & Douglas, K. M. (2005). Justice for all, or just for me? More evidence of the importance of the self-other distinction in just-world beliefs. Personality and Individual Differences,39(3), 637–645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.010.
Sutton, R. M., Douglas, K. M., Wilkin, K., Elder, T. J., Cole, J. M., & Stathi, S. (2008). Justice for whom, exactly? Beliefs in justice for the self and various others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,34(4), 528–541. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207312526.
Sutton, R. M., & Winnard, E. J. (2007). Looking ahead through lenses of justice: The relevance of just-world beliefs to intentions and confidence in the future. British Journal of Social Psychology,46(3), 649–666. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466606X166220.
Tapp, J. L., & Levine, F. J. (1974). Legal socialization: Strategies for an ethical legality. Stanford Law Review,27(1), 1–72. https://doi.org/10.2307/1227929.
Thomas, K. J. (2017). Justice perceptions and demographics of privilege among Brazilian adolescents. Psychological Reports. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294117745886.
Thomas, K. J., & Mucherah, W. M. (2016). How fair is my world? Development of just world beliefs among Kenyan students. Journal of Adolescence,49, 244–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.03.011.
Thomas, K. J., & Mucherah, W. M. (2018). Constructing lenses of justice: Relationships between Brazilian adolescents’ just world beliefs, perceived school fairness, legal authorities and student conduct. Social Justice Research,31(1), 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-017-03016.
Thomas, K. J., & Napolitano, P. (2017). Educational privilege: The role of school context in the development of just world beliefs. International Journal of Psychology,52(S1), 106–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12382.
Transparency International. (2017). National results: Brazil. Retrieved from https://www.transparency.org/country/BRA.
Trinkner, R., & Cohn, E. S. (2014). Putting the “social” back in legal socialization: Procedural justice, legitimacy, and cynicism in legal and nonlegal authorities. Law and Human Behavior,38(6), 602–617. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000107.
Trinkner, R., Cohn, E., Rebellon, C. J., & Van Gundy, K. (2012). Don’t trust anyone over 30: Parental legitimacy as a mediator between parenting style and changes in delinquent behavior over time. Journal of Adolescence,35(1), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.05.003.
Trinkner, R., Rodrigues, H., Veiga, D. P. B., Gifford, F., & Gomes, A. M. M. (2019). Legal socialisation in Brazil: Examining the generalizability of the procedural justice model. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2019.1587710.
Tyler, T. (1990). Why people obey the law. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Tyler, T. (2006). Psychological perspectives on legitimacy and legitimation. Annual Review Psychology,57, 375–400. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190038.
Tyler, T., & Trinkner, R. (2017). Why children follow rules: Legal socialization and the development of legitimacy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Umlauft, S., & Dalbert, C. (2017). Justice experiences and feelings of exclusion. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal,20(3), 565–587. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-017-9387-9.
Van Gundy, K., Stracuzzi, N., Rebellon, C., Tucker, C., & Cohn, E. (2011). Perceived community cohesion and the stress process in youth. Rural Sociology,76(3), 293–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2011.00050.x.
Watts, J. (2017). Operation car wash: Is this the biggest corruption scandal in history? The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/01/brazil-operation-car-wash-is-this-the-biggest-corruption-scandal-in-history.
Wu, M. S., & Cohen, A. B. (2017). Justice concerns after school attacks: Belief in a just world and support for perpetrator punishment among Chinese adults and adolescents. Social Justice Research,30(3), 221–237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-017-0286-1.
Wu, M. S., Sutton, R. M., Yan, X., Zhou, C., Chen, Y., Zhu, Z., et al. (2013). Time frame and justice motive: Future perspective moderates the adaptive function of general belief in a just world. PLoS ONE,8(11), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080668.
Zuckerman, M., & Gerbasi, K. C. (1977). Belief in a just world and trust. Journal of Research in Personality,11(3), 306–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(77)90039-3.
Funding
The São Paulo Legal Socialization Study (SPLSS) survey was funded by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), developed by the Center for the Study of Violence of the University of São Paulo (NEV-USP), for the 2013–2018 Research, Innovation and Dissemination Centers (RIDCs) Program “Building Democracy Daily: Human Rights, Violence and Institutional Trust” (Process Number: 2013/07923-7).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Thomas, K.J., Rodrigues, H. The Just World Gap, Privilege, and Legal Socialization: A Study Among Brazilian Preadolescents. Soc Just Res 33, 18–43 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-019-00344-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-019-00344-6
Keywords
- Just world
- Legal socialization
- Legal cynicism
- Privilege
- Preadolescence