Abstract
The tendency to view the self as a prototypic member of a group is thought to be at the foundation of many social psychological phenomena. Two opposing accounts of perceived prototypicality have been suggested in the psychological literature. The self-justification account portrays this as a defensive tendency that occurs in response to threatened group status. The self-enhancement account portrays this as a strategic tendency to associate the self with positively viewed groups. These competing views were tested using both a minimal group (Study 1) and a naturalistic group (Study 2). Both studies showed that perceived prototypicality increased with increasing group status. Moreover, the effect of status was moderated by group importance (Study 1) and behavioral choice (Study 2). Both interaction patterns supported the self-enhancement view, suggesting that people view themselves as prototypic group members when doing so will promote a positive identity. These findings contradict common statements in the social identity literature.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrams, D., and Hogg, M. A. (2001). Comments on the motivational status of self-esteem in social identity and intergroup discrimination. In Hogg, M. A., and Abrams, C. (eds.), Intergroup Relations: Essential Readings, Psychology Press, Philadelphia, pp. 232–244.
Aiken, L. S., and West, S. G. (1991). Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions, Sage, Newbury Park, CA.
Aronson, E., and Mills, J. (1959). The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group. J. Abn. Soc. Psychol. 59: 177–181.
Barreto, M., and Ellemers, N. (2002). The impact of respect versus neglect of self-identities on identification and group loyalty. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 28: 626–639.
Biernat, M., Vescio, T. K., and Green, M. L. (1996). Selective self-stereotyping. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 71: 1194–1209.
Blanton, H., and Christie, C. (2003). Deviance: A theory of action and identity. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 7: 115–149.
Blanton, H., Christie, C., and Dye, M. (2002). Social identity versus reference-frame comparisons: The moderating role of stereotype endorsement. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 38: 253–267.
Blanton, H., George, G., and Crocker, J. (2001). Contexts of system justification and system evaluation: Exploring the social comparison strategies of the (not yet) contented female worker. Group Processes Intergroup Relat. 4: 126–137.
Blanton, H., and Jaccard, J. (in press). Testing multiplicative models in psychology: A case study using the unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychol. Rev.
Cooper, J. (1971). Personal responsibility and dissonance: The role of foreseen consequences. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 18: 354–363.
Cooper, J., and Brehm, J.W. (1971). Prechoice awareness of relative deprivation as a determinant of cognitive dissonance. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 7: 571–581.
Cooper, J., and Fazio, R. H. (1984). A new look at dissonance theory. In Berkowitz, L. (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (vol. 17) Academic Press, New York, pp. 229–266.
Crocker, J., and Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychol. Rev. 96: 608–630.
Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Peterson, Evanston, IL.
Hogg, M. A., and Abrams, D. (1988). Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes, Routledge, London.
Jaccard, J., Turrisi, R., and Wan, C. K. (1990). Interaction effects in multiple regression. Sage University Paper Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, Series No. 89-10764, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Jost, J. T., and Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 33: 1–27.
Jost, J. T., and Burgess, D. (2000). Attitudinal ambivalence and the conflict between group and system justification motives in low status groups. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 26: 293–305.
Jost, J. T., Pelham, B. W., Sheldon, O., and Sullivan, B. N. (2003). Social inequality and the reduction of ideological dissonance on behalf of the system: Evidence of enhanced system justification among the disadvantaged. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 33: 13–36.
Lakatos, I. (1970). Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programs. In Lakatos, I. and Musgrave, A. (eds.), Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 91–196
Long, K., and Spears, R. (1997). The self-esteem hypothesis revisited: Differentiation and the disaffected. In Spears, R., Oakes, P. J., Ellemers, N., and Haslam, A. S. (eds.), The Social Psychology of Stereotyping and Group Life, Blackwell, Malden, MA, pp. 296–317.
McGuire, W. J. (2004). A perspectivist approach to theory construction. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 8: 173–182.
Mullen, B., and Goethals, G. R. (1990). Social projection, actual consensus and valence. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 29: 279–282.
Oakes, P. J., Haslam, A., and Turner, J. C. (1994). Stereotyping and Social Reality, Blackwell, Oxford, UK.
Pelham, B. W. (1995). Self-investment and self-esteem: Evidence for a Jamesian model of self-worth. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 69: 1141–1150.
Rothman, A. J., and Schwarz, N. (1998). Constructing perceptions of vulnerability: Personal relevance and the use of experiential information in health judgments. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 24: 1053–1064.
Scher, S. J., and Cooper, J. (1989). Motivational basis of dissonance: The singular role of behavioral consequences. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 56: 899–906.
Sedikides, C. (1993). Assessment, enhancement, and verification determinants of the self-evaluation process. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 65: 317–338.
Sedikides, C., and Gregg A. P. (2003). Portraits of the self. In Hogg, M. A., and Cooper, J. (eds), Sage Handbook of Social Psychology, Sage Publications, London, pp.110–138.
Smith, B., and Hamilton, D. L. (1994). Self-stereotyping and social context: The effects of relative in-group size and in-group status. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 66: 699–711.
Spears, R. Doosje, B., and Ellemers, N. (1997). Self-stereotyping in the face of threats to group status and distinctiveness: The role of group identification. Pers. and Soc. Psychol. Bull. 23: 538–553.
Steele, C. M., and Liu, T. J. (1983). The Dissonance Processes as Self-Affirmation. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 45: 5–19.
Tafarodi, R. W., Mehranvar, S., Panton, R. L., and Milne, A. B. (2002). Putting oneself in the task: Choice, personalization, and confidence. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 28: 648–658.
Tajfel, H., and Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Austin, W. G., and Worschel, S. (eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, Brooks/Cole, Monterey, CA, pp. 33–48.
Tajfel, H., and Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In Worchel, S., and Austin, W. (eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (2nd ed.), Nelson-Hall, Chicago, pp. 7–24
Taylor, S. E., and Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychol. Bull. 103: 193–210.
Thibaut, J. (1950). An experimental study of the cohesiveness of underprivileged groups. Hum. Rel. 3: 251–278.
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., and Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
Turner, C., Hogg, M. A., Turner, P. J., and Smith, P. M. (1984). Failure and defeat as a determinant of group cohesiveness. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 23: 97–111.
Verkuyten, M., and Nekuee, S. (1999). Ingroup bias: The effect of self-stereotyping, identification and group threat. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 29: 411–418.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Burkley, M., Blanton, H. When Am I My Group? Self-Enhancement Versus Self-Justification Accounts of Perceived Prototypicality. Soc Just Res 18, 445–463 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-005-8570-x
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-005-8570-x