Abstract
Evaporation of chromospheric plasma by particle beams has been a standard feature of models of solar flares for many decades, supported both by observations of strong hard X-ray bremsstrahlung signals, and detailed 1D hydrodynamic radiative transfer models with near-relativistic electron beams included. However, in multi-dimensional models, evaporation, if included, has only been driven by heat conduction and by the impact and reflection of fast plasma outflows on the lower atmosphere. Here we present the first multi-dimensional flare simulation featuring evaporation driven by energetic electrons. We use a recent magnetohydrodynamic model that includes beam physics, but decrease the initial anomalous resistivity to create a gentler precursor phase, and improve on the dynamic resistivity treatment that determines where beams are injected. Beam-driven evaporation is achieved. The relevant factors are thermal conduction and electron beams, with the beam electrons more than doubling the kinetic energy flux, and adding 50% to the upward mass from the chromosphere. These findings finally pave the way for integrating detailed 1D flare modelling within a self-consistent 2D and 3D context. The beam fluxes from these self-consistent models can be used to directly compare multi-dimensional results with those from the externally injected beam fluxes of 1D models, as well as understand further evaporation-driven phenomena relating to beams of particles.
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We acknowledge the helpful input of the anonymous referee for improving the manuscript.
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M.D. is supported by FWO project G0B4521N. M.D., W.R. and R.K. also received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 833251 PROMINENT ERC-ADG 2018). W.R. was supported by a postdoctoral mandate (PDMT1/21/027) by KU Leuven. R.K. is supported by Internal Funds KU Leuven through the project C14/19/089 TRACESpace and an FWO project G0B4521N. The computational resources and services used in this work were provided by the VSC (Flemish Supercomputer Center), funded by the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) and the Flemish Government, department EWI.
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M.D. developed the alterations of the flare module code as described in the paper, conducted the simulations and analysis, and wrote the paper. W.R. wrote the underlying flare module, assisted on the developments presented, advised on analysis, and edited the manuscript. R.K. is the lead developer of the MPI-AMRVAC code in which this simulation is run, advised on the flare module development, and edited the manuscript.
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Druett, M.K., Ruan, W. & Keppens, R. Chromospheric Evaporation by Particle Beams in Multi-Dimensional Flare Models. Sol Phys 298, 134 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-023-02224-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-023-02224-4