Observing the Sun with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA): Fast-Scan Single-Dish Mapping

Solar Physics volume 292, Article number: 88 (2017) Cite this article

Abstract

The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope has commenced science observations of the Sun starting in late 2016. Since the Sun is much larger than the field of view of individual ALMA dishes, the ALMA interferometer is unable to measure the background level of solar emission when observing the solar disk. The absolute temperature scale is a critical measurement for much of ALMA solar science, including the understanding of energy transfer through the solar atmosphere, the properties of prominences, and the study of shock heating in the chromosphere. In order to provide an absolute temperature scale, ALMA solar observing will take advantage of the remarkable fast-scanning capabilities of the ALMA 12 m dishes to make single-dish maps of the full Sun. This article reports on the results of an extensive commissioning effort to optimize the mapping procedure, and it describes the nature of the resulting data. Amplitude calibration is discussed in detail: a path that uses the two loads in the ALMA calibration system as well as sky measurements is described and applied to commissioning data. Inspection of a large number of single-dish datasets shows significant variation in the resulting temperatures, and based on the temperature distributions, we derive quiet-Sun values at disk center of 7300 K at \(\lambda = 3~\mbox{mm}\) and 5900 K at \(\lambda = 1.3~\mbox{mm}\). These values have statistical uncertainties of about 100 K, but systematic uncertainties in the temperature scale that may be significantly larger. Example images are presented from two periods with very different levels of solar activity. At a resolution of about \(25''\), the 1.3 mm wavelength images show temperatures on the disk that vary over about a 2000 K range. Active regions and plages are among the hotter features, while a large sunspot umbra shows up as a depression, and filament channels are relatively cool. Prominences above the solar limb are a common feature of the single-dish images.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Fast-scanning observing with the ALMA dishes was initially developed by Richard Hills and Neil Phillips, with non-solar observing in mind, during several commissioning campaigns starting in 2010. These efforts are documented in the ALMA Commissioning and Science Verification task CSV-203 and attached sub-tasks; specific solar developments are documented under CSV-3162 (2014 campaign) and CSV-3244 (2015).

  2. 2.

    The 25 12 m antennas built for ALMA by the AEM Consortium, normally used for interferometer observations, are also direct-drive antennas that perform well as fast-scanning dishes, but they are not discussed in this article.

  3. 3.

    The solar team can confirm that trying to observe at higher elevations does drive the antennas into a non-functioning state: the prolonged excessive accelerations can cause the drive power amplifiers of the PM antennas to trigger an overcurrent cut-out, requiring manual reset by a human at the antenna to recover operation.

  4. 4.

    Technically, this measurement is on the “\(T_{\mathrm{R}}^{*}\)” temperature scale (Jewell, 2002), but since the Sun is so much larger than the beam, the source-coupling factor can be assumed to be unity, and effectively this is the true source brightness temperature.

  5. 5.

    Note that in the standard CASA single-dish calibration script this correction is applied as a “gain” in the gencal task. Since gains refer to values for each antenna that are then multiplied together in pairs to correct visibilities between two antennas, in the case of single-dish data, the gain supplied is the inverse square-root of the correction factor. Alternatively, the correction factor can be applied directly after the imaging step with the immath task.

  6. 6.

    Solar single-dish data should be processed with CASA version 4.7 or later versions.

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Acknowledgments

The ALMA solar commissioning effort was supported by ALMA Development grants from NRAO (for the North American contribution), ESO (for the European contribution), and NAOJ (for the East Asia contribution). The help and cooperation of the ALMA Extension and Optimization of Capabilities (EOC) team as well as the engineers, telescope operators, astronomers-on-duty, and staff at the ALMA Operations Support Facility was crucial for the success of solar commissioning campaigns in 2014 and 2015. We are grateful to the ALMA project for making solar observing with ALMA possible. R. Brajša acknowledges partial support of this work by the Croatian Science Foundation under the project 6212 “Solar and Stellar Variability” and by the European Commission FP7 project SOLARNET (312495, 2013 – 2017), which is an Integrated Infrastructure Initiative (I3) supported by the FP7 Capacities Programme. G. Fleishmann acknowledges support from NSF grants AGS-1250374 and AGS-1262772. Travel by Y. Yan to ALMA for the 2015 commissioning campaign was partially supported by NSFC grant 11433006.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Space Vehicles Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, 3550 Aberdeen Avenue SE, Kirtland AFB, NM, 87117-5776, USA

    S. M. White

  2. National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Koganei, 184-8795, Tokyo, Japan

    K. Iwai

  3. Joint ALMA Observatory (JAO), Alonso de Córdova 3107, Vitacura, 763-0355, Santiago, Chile

    N. M. Phillips, A. Hirota, G. Siringo, A. S. Hales, T. Sawada, S. Asayama, I. de Gregorio & S. A. Corder

  4. European Southern Observatory, Alonso de Córdova 3107, Vitacura, 763-0355, Santiago, Chile

    N. M. Phillips, G. Siringo & I. de Gregorio

  5. Astrophysics Group, Cavendish Laboratory, JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 0HE, UK

    R. E. Hills

  6. European Southern Observatory (ESO), Karl-Schwarzschild-Strasse 2, 85748, Garching bei München, Germany

    P. Yagoubov

  7. National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ), 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8588, Japan

    A. Hirota, M. Shimojo, T. Sawada, S. Asayama, M. Sugimoto, W. Kawasaki, E. Muller, T. Nakazato & K. Sugimoto

  8. National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), 520 Edgemont Road, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA

    T. S. Bastian, A. S. Hales, A. J. Remijan & S. A. Corder

  9. National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), Pete V. Domenici Science Operations Center, 1003 Lopezville Road, Socorro, NM, 87801, USA

    R. G. Marson

  10. Hvar Observatory, Faculty of Geodesy, University of Zagreb, Kačićeva 26, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia

    R. Brajša

  11. Astronomical Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences, Fričova 298, 251 65, Ondřejov, Czech Republic

    I. Skokić & M. Bárta

  12. Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, Daejeon, 305-348, Republic of Korea

    S. Kim

  13. School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Scotland, UK

    H. S. Hudson

  14. Center For Solar-Terrestrial Research, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA

    M. Loukitcheva, B. Chen, G. D. Fleishmann & D. E. Gary

  15. Max-Planck-Institut for Sonnensystemforschung, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 3, 37077, Göttingen, Germany

    M. Loukitcheva

  16. Astronomical Institute, St. Petersburg University, Universitetskii pr. 28, 198504, St. Petersburg, Russia

    M. Loukitcheva

  17. Lockheed Martin Solar & Astrophysics Lab, Org. A021S, Bldg. 252, 3251 Hanover Street, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA

    B. De Pontieu

  18. Center for Space Plasma and Aeronomic Research, The University of Alabama Huntsville, Huntsville, AL, 35899, USA

    A. Kobelski

  19. Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, Postboks 1029, Blindern, 0315, Oslo, Norway

    S. Wedemeyer

  20. National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, A20 Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100012, China

    Y. Yan

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  1. S. M. White
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  30. G. D. Fleishmann
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  34. Y. Yan
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Correspondence to S. M. White.

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This article is a companion of the article available at doi: 10.1007/s11207-017-1095-2 .

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White, S.M., Iwai, K., Phillips, N.M. et al. Observing the Sun with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA): Fast-Scan Single-Dish Mapping. Sol Phys 292, 88 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-017-1123-2

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Keywords

  • Radio emission
  • Chromosphere
  • Heating, chromospheric
  • Instrumentation and data management