Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Measuring Attitudes Towards Social Europe: A Multidimensional Approach

  • Published:
Social Indicators Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although the notion of ‘Social Europe’ can refer to different principles and policy options, most research narrows down attitudes towards Social Europe to a unidimensional construct. In this study, we instead propose a multi-dimensional approach, and contribute to the literature in three ways. First, we elaborate the notion of ‘Social Europe’ conceptually, and distinguish between the decision-making level for social policy, European social citizenship, harmonization, member-state solidarity and interpersonal solidarity. Second, analysing the 2014 Belgian National Election Study by means of confirmatory factor analysis we evidence that citizens indeed have distinct attitudes towards the policy principles and instruments of Social Europe. Although these attitudinal dimensions are interrelated, they cannot be reduced to a single Social Europe factor, meaning that citizens differentiate in their attitudes between various aspects of Social Europe. In addition, our research indicates that member-state solidarity is the primary aspect of Social Europe in public opinion, whereas the feature that has received most scholarly attention in empirical research to date—the preferred decision-making level for social policy—cannot be considered as a key component of attitudes towards Social Europe. Third, we investigate whether citizens with different educational levels conceptualize Social Europe similarly using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis. Results indicate that the attitudinal factor structure of Social Europe is largely equivalent among lower and higher-educated citizens.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Source BNES (2014)

Fig. 2

Source BNES (2014)

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. For a discussion of the notion of the ‘European Social Union’ see Vandenbroucke (2013, 2014) for the ‘European Social Model’ see Alber (2006) and Jepsen and Pascual (2005), and for ‘European social integration’ see Threlfall (2007).

  2. We do not include the social dialogue or collective bargaining at the EU level in our conceptualization, despite the fact that these can also be considered aspects of Social Europe (e.g. Gold 1993).

  3. The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) formally introduced EU citizenship, setting out that any national of a member state is legally also a ‘citizen of the Union’.

  4. The agricultural fund of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is also sometimes perceived as an element of the EU’s social dimension (Seeleib-Kaiser 2013).

  5. The ML estimation procedure assumes that the indicators are continuous and follow a multivariate normal distribution. Given that most of our indicators are five-point Likert items, this assumption is not fulfilled. However, simulation studies show that the ML estimator is robust against a violation of the normality assumption as long as there are at least five answer categories and the data is not overly skewed (DiStefano 2002; Muthén and Kaplan 1985; West et al. 1995). As a robustness check, we re-estimated the first and second-order factor models (Models 1–5) using robust weighted least squares (WLSMV) estimation for categorical data. This yielded very similar results, although factor loadings were slightly stronger and model fit was, depending on the fit index considered, marginally worse (χ2, RMSEA) or somewhat better (CFI, TLI). In this article, we report the ML estimates because this procedure is more straightforward for testing measurement equivalence. The WLSMV results are available on request from the first author.

  6. In the uncorrelated model, factor loadings for the two indicators of ‘interpersonal solidarity’—Q121_3 and Q121_7—were set equal (constrained to 1) for reasons of model identification.

  7. The (standardized) factor loading of member-state solidarity had to be constrained to 1 among the low educated, because the loading exceeded the value of 1 for this group.

References

  • Abts, K., Swyngedouw, M., Meuleman, B., Baute, S., Galle, J., & Gaasendam, C. (2015). Belgian National Election Study 2014. Codebook: Questions and frequency tables. Leuven: ISPO-KU Leuven and CLEO—Université de Liège.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alber, J. (2006). The European social model and the United States. European Union Politics, 7(3), 393–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, D. (2010). The structural funds and cohesion policy. In H. Wallace, M. A. Pollack, & A. Young (Eds.), Policy-making in the European Union (6th ed., pp. 229–252). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allespach, M., & Machnig, J. (2013). A change in course towards a social Europe. In A. M. Grozelier, B. Hacker, W. Kowalsky, J. Machnig, H. Meyer, & B. Unger (Eds.), Roadmap to a social Europe Social Europe report. (pp. 92–94).

  • Anderson, J. (1995). Structural funds and the social dimension of EU policy: Springboard or stumbling block? In S. Leibfried & P. Pierson (Eds.), European social policy: Between fragmentation and integration (pp. 123–158). Washington DC: The Brookings Institution.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andor, L. (2016). Towards shared unemployment insurance in the euro area. IZA Journal of European Labor Studies, 5(10), 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, A. B., & Marlier, E. (2010). Income and living conditions in Europe. Luxembourg. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/5722557/KS-31-10-555-EN.PDF

  • Bartolini, S. (2005). Restructuring Europe: Centre formation, system building, and political structuring between the nation state and the European Union. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Beaudonnet, L. (2012). You don’t bite the hand that feeds you: The impact of redistribution on attitudes towards Europe. CSD working papers. Retrieved from http://escholarship.org/uc/item/3nh085bd

  • Beaudonnet, L. (2013). Preferences for European social policy in times of crisis. Politique européenne, 42(4), 96–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaudonnet, L. (2014). Take one for the team? A study of the individual bases for European solidarity in times of crisis. Presented at the 10th European Community Studies Association—Canada biennial conference, Université de Montréal, Montreal, 8–10 May 2014.

  • Beaudonnet, L., & Di Mauro, D. (2012). Support for Europe: Assessing the complexity of individual attitudes. In L. Beaudonnet, & D. Di Mauro (Eds.), Beyond Euro-skepticism: Understanding attitudes towards the EU. European integration online papers, special issue 2, Vol. 16, article 9. http://eiop.or.at/eiop/texte/2012-009a.htm

  • Bechtel, M. M., Hainmueller, J., & Margalit, Y. (2014). Preferences for international redistribution: The divide over the Eurozone bailouts. American Journal of Political Science, 58(4), 835–856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berg, L. (2007). Multi-level Europeans. The influence of territorial attachments on political trust and welfare attitudes. Doctoral dissertation, Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden. Retrieved from https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/17144/7/gupea_2077_17144_7.pdf

  • Boomgaarden, H. G., Schuck, A. R. T., Elenbaas, M., & de Vreese, C. H. (2011). Mapping EU attitudes: Conceptual and empirical dimensions of Euroscepticism and EU support. European Union Politics, 12(2), 241–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruzelius, C., Chase, E., & Seeleib-Kaiser, M. (2014). Semi-sovereign welfare states, social rights of EU migrant citizens and the need for strong state capacities. Oxford Institute of Social Policy. Retrieved from http://socialeurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/RE3-Seeleib.pdf

  • Büchs, M. (2007). New governance in European social policy: The open method of coordination (Vol. 15). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Burgoon, B. (2009). Social nation and social Europe: Support for national and supranational welfare compensation in Europe. European Union Politics, 10(4), 427–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B., & Stewart, S. M. (2006). Teacher’s corner: The MACS approach to testing for multigroup invariance of a second-order structure: A walk through the process. Structural Equation Modeling, 13(2), 287–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Castles, F. G., Leibfried, S., Lewis, J., Obinger, H., & Pierson, C. (2010). The Oxford handbook of the welfare state. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Cautrès, B. (2012). Multidimensionality of EU attitudes in France: An issue for the understanding of the politicization of attitudes towards the EU. In L. Beaudonnet, & D. Di Mauro (Eds.), Beyond Euro-skepticism: Understanding attitudes towards the EU. European integration online papers, special issue 2, Vol. 16, article 7. http://eiop.or.at/eiop/texte/2012-007a.htm

  • Chen, F. F., Sousa, K. H., & West, S. G. (2005). Teacher’s corner: Testing measurement invariance of second-order factor models. Structural Equation Modeling, 12(3), 471–492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crum, B. (2011). What do we owe the Poles (or the Greeks)? Three emerging Duties of transnational social justice in the European Union. RECON online working paper 2011/35. Retrieved from www.reconproject.eu/projectweb/portalproject/RECONWorkingPapers.html

  • Davidov, E., Meuleman, B., Cieciuch, J., Schmidt, P., & Billiet, J. (2014). Measurement equivalence in cross-national research. Annual Review of Sociology, 40(1), 55–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De la Porte, C., & Pochet, P. (2012). Why and how (still) study the open method of co-ordination (OMC)? Journal of European Social Policy, 22(3), 336–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Winter, L., & Swyngedouw, M. (1999). The scope of EU government. In H. Schmitt & J. Thomassen (Eds.), Political representation and legitimacy in the European Union (pp. 47–73). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Dillman, D., Smyth, J., & Christian, L. (2014). Internet, phone, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: The tailored design method. Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • DiStefano, C. (2002). The impact of categorization with confirmatory factor analysis. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(3), 327–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dougan, M., & Spaventa, E. (2005). Wish you weren’t here… New models of social solidarity in the European Union. In M. Dougan & E. Spaventa (Eds.), Social welfare and EU law (pp. 181–218). London: Hart Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dullien, S. (2012). A European unemployment insurance as a stabilization deviceSelected issues. Brussels. Paper prepared for brainstorming workshop on July 2, 2012 at the DG EMPL.

  • Eichenberg, R. C., & Dalton, R. J. (2007). Post-Maastricht blues: The transformation of citizen support for European integration, 1973–2004. Acta Politica, 42(2–3), 128–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2007). Standard Eurobarometer 65/Spring 2006: Public opinion in the European Union. Brussels: European Commission.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2010). Standard Eurobarometer 73/Spring 2010: Public opinion in the European Union. Brussels: European Commission.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2014). Standard Eurobarometer 81/Spring 2014: Public opinion in the European Union. Brussels: European Commission.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2015). EU budget 2014: Financial report. Luxembourg. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/budget/financialreport/2014/expenditure/allocation/index_en.html

  • European Economic and Social Committee. (2013). Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on European minimum income and poverty indicators, SOC/482. Brussels, 10 Dec 2013. Retrieved from http://www.eesc.europa.eu/?i=portal.en.soc-opinions.26780

  • European Parliament. (2015). The principle of subsidiarity. Retrieved from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/ftu/pdf/en/FTU_1.2.2.pdf

  • Faist, T. (2001). Social citizenship in the European Union: Nested membership. Journal of Common Market Studies, 39(1), 37–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falkner, G. (2009a). European integration and the welfare state(s) in Europe. Working paper 3. Vienna: Institute for European Integration Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences.

  • Falkner, G. (2009b). The EU’s social dimension. In M. Cini & N. P.-S. Borragán (Eds.), European Union Politics (3rd ed., pp. 275–290). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falkner, G. (2010). European Union. In F. G. Castles, S. Leibfried, J. Lewis, H. Obinger, & C. Pierson (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of the welfare state (pp. 292–305). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fattibene, D. (2015). Creating a union with a “human face”: A European unemployment insurance. Retrieved from http://www.socialeurope.eu/2015/07/creating-union-human-face-european-unemployment-insurance/

  • Fernandes, S., & Maslauskaite, K. (2013a). A social dimension for the EMU: Why and how? Policy Paper 98. Notre Europe—Jacques Delors Institute. Retrieved from http://www.notre-europe.eu/media/socialdimensionsforeumfernandesmaslauskaitene-jdisept2013.pdf?pdf=ok

  • Fernandes, S., & Maslauskaite, K. (2013b). Deepening the EMU: How to maintain and develop the European social model? A study for the Federal Chancellery of Austria. Studies and reports, Notre Europe—Jacques Delors Institute.

  • Fernandes, S., & Rubio, E. (2012). Solidarity within the Eurozone: How much, what for, for how long? Policy Paper 51, Notre Europe—Jacques Delors Institute. Retrieved from http://www.institutdelors.eu/media/solidarityemus.fernandes-e.rubionefeb2012.pdf?pdf=ok.

  • Ferrera, M. (2005). The boundaries of welfare: European integration and the new spatial politics of social protection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrera, M. (2014). Social Europe and its components in the midst of the crisis: a conclusion. West European Politics, 37(4), 825–843.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fichtner, F. (2014). Euro area-wide unemployment insurance: Useless, desirable, or indispensable? In D. Natali (Ed.), Social developments in the European Union 2013 (pp. 115–130). Brussels: ETUI aisbl.

    Google Scholar 

  • Føllesdal, A., Giorgi, L., & Heuberger, R. (2007). Envisioning European solidarity between welfare ideologies and the European social agenda. Innovation, 20(1), 75–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaxie, D., Hubé, N., & Rowell, J. (2011). Perceptions of Europe. A comparative sociology of European attitudes. Colchester: ECPR Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerhards, J., & Lengfeld, H. (2013). European integration, equality rights and people’s beliefs: Evidence from Germany. European Sociological Review, 29(1), 19–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerhards, J., & Lengfeld, H. (2015). European citizenship and social integration in the European Union. Abingdon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerhards, J., Lengfeld, H., & Häuberer, J. (2014). The EU crisis and citizens support for a European welfare state. Arbeitspapier Nr. 30, Berliner Studien zur Soziologie Europas. Retrieved from http://www.polsoz.fu-berlin.de/soziologie/arbeitsbereiche/makrosoziologie/arbeitspapiere/pdf/BSSE-Nr_-30.pdf.

  • Gerrits, A. M. W. (2015). Solidarity and the European Union: From the welfare state to the Euro crisis. In E. Hillebrand & A. M. Kellner (Eds.), Shaping a different Europe: Contributions to a critical debate. Bonn: Dietz Verlag J.H.W. Nachf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geyer, R. (2000). Exploring European social policy. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giubboni, S. (2014). European citizenship and social rights in times of crisis. German Law Journal, 15(5), 935–964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gold, M. (1993). The social dimension: Employment policy in the European Community. Basingstoke: Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Grozelier, A.M., Hacker, B., Kowalsky, W., Machnig, J., Meyer, H., & Unger, B. (2013). Roadmap to a social Europe. Social Europe report.

  • Habermas, J. (2013). Democracy, solidarity and the European crisis. In A. M. Grozelier, B. Hacker, W. Kowalsky, J. Machnig, H. Meyer, & B. Unger (Eds.), Roadmap to a social Europe. Social Europe report. (pp. 4–13).

  • Heggestad, E. D., Rogelberg, S., Goh, A., & Oswald, F. L. (2015). Considering the effects of nonresponse on correlations between surveyed variables. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 14(2), 91–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hodson, D., & Maher, I. (2001). The open method as a new mode of governance: The case of soft economic policy co-ordination. Journal of Common Market Studies, 39(4), 719–746.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jepsen, M., & Pascual, A. S. (2005). The European social model: An exercise in deconstruction. Journal of European Social Policy, 15(3), 231–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman, M. (2002). A European welfare state? European Union social policy in context. Basingstoke: Palgrave.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi, H., Grande, E., Lachat, R., Dolezal, M., Bornschier, S., & Frey, T. (2008). West European politics in the age of globalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Leibfried, S. (2000). National welfare states, European integration and globalization: A perspective for the next century. Social Policy and Administration, 34(1), 44–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leibfried, S. (2015). Social policy: Left to the judges and the markets? In H. Wallace, W. Wallace, & M. A. Pollack (Eds.), Policy-making in the European Union (7th ed., pp. 263–292). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leibfried, S., & Pierson, P. (1995). European social policy: Between fragmentation and integration. Washington DC: The Brookings Institution.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lengfeld, H., Schmidt, S., & Häuberer, J. (2015). Is there a European solidarity? Attitudes towards fiscal assistance for debt-ridden European Union member states. SSRN Electronic Journal. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2597605

  • Levy, H., Matsaganis, M., & Sutherland, H. (2013). Towards a European Union child basic income? Within and between country effects. International Journal of Microsimulation, 6(1), 63–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnusson, L., & Stråth, B. (2004). A European social citizenship? Preconditions for future policies from a historical perspective. Brussels: P.I.E.-Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Majone, G. (1993). The European Community between social policy and social regulation. Journal of Common Market Studies, 31(2), 153–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinsen, D. S., & Vollaard, H. (2014). Implementing social Europe in times of crises: Re-established boundaries of welfare? West European Politics, 37(4), 677–692.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mau, S. (2005). Democratic demand for a social Europe? Preferences of the European citizenry. International Journal of Social Welfare, 14(2), 76–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mau, S., & Verwiebe, R. (2010). European societies: Mapping structure and change. Bristol: Policy Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mewes, J., & Mau, S. (2012). Unraveling working-class welfare chauvinism. In S. Svallfors (Ed.), Contested welfare states: Welfare attitudes in Europe and beyond (pp. 119–157). Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, B., & Kaplan, D. (1985). A comparison of some methodologies for the factor analysis of non-normal Likert variables. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 38(2), 171–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nida-Rümelin, J., Hirschel, D., Meyer, H., Meyer, T., Möller, A., Scheer, N., Schwan, G., & Schwengel, H. (2013). We need a Europe that is truly social and democratic: The case for a fundamental reform of the European Union. Social Europe Occasional Paper. Retrieved from https://www.socialeurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/OccPap3.pdf.

  • Pena-Casas, R., & Denis, B. (2014). Towards a European minimum income? Discussions, issues and prospects. In D. Natali (Ed.), Social developments in the European Union 2013 (pp. 131–159). Brussels: ETUI aisbl.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierson, P., & Leibfried, S. (1995). Multitiered Institutions and the Making of Social Policy. In S. Leibfried & P. Pierson (Eds.), European social policy: Between fragmentation and integration (pp. 1–40). Washington DC: The Brookings Institution.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pochet, P. (2005). The open method of coordination and the construction of social Europe: A historical perspective. In J. Zeitlin & P. Pochet (Eds.), The open method of coordination in action: The European employment and social inclusion strategies (pp. 37–82). Brussels: P.I.E. Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porte, C. D. L., Pochet, P., & Room, B. G. (2001). Social benchmarking, policy making and new governance in the EU. Journal of European Social Policy, 11(4), 291–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raspotnik, A., Jacob, M., & Ventura, L. (2012). Discussion paper: The issue of solidarity in the European Union. TEPSA Brief. Retrieved from http://www.tepsa.eu/tepsa-brief-the-issue-of-solidarity-in-the-european-union/

  • Ray, L. (2004). Don’t rock the boat: Expectations, fears, and opposition to EU-level policy-making. In G. Marks & M. Steenbergen (Eds.), European integration and political conflict (pp. 51–61). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, M., & Mény, Y. (1998). The future of European welfare: A new social contract?. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Sangiovanni, A. (2013). Solidarity in the European Union. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 33(2), 1–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7(2), 147–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schall, C. E. (2012). Is the problem of European citizenship a problem of social citizenship? Social policy, federalism, and democracy in the EU and United States. Sociological Inquiry, 82(1), 123–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scharpf, F. W. (2002). The European social model: Coping with the challenges of diversity. Journal of Common Market Studies, 40(4), 645–670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seeleib-Kaiser, M. (2013). What is the social dimension of the EU? In A.M. Grozelier, B. Hacker, W. Kowalsky, J. Machnig, H. Meyer, & B. Unger (Eds.), Roadmap to a social Europe Social Europe report. (pp. 25–28).

  • Threlfall, M. (2003). European social integration: Harmonization, convergence and single social areas. Journal of European Social Policy, 13(2), 121–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Threlfall, M. (2007). The social dimension of the European Union: Innovative methods for advancing integration. Global Social Policy, 7(3), 271–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trubek, D. M., & Trubek, L. G. (2005). Hard and soft law in the construction of social Europe: The role of the open method of co-ordination. European Law Journal, 11(3), 343–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Waal, J., Achterberg, P., Houtman, D., de Koster, W., & Manevska, K. (2010). “Some are more equal than others”: Economic egalitarianism and welfare chauvinism in the Netherlands. Journal of European Social Policy, 20(4), 350–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Oorschot, W., & Meuleman, B. (2012). Welfarism and the multidimensionality of welfare state legitimacy: Evidence from the Netherlands, 2006. International Journal of Social Welfare, 21(1), 79–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbroucke, (2013). A European social union: Why we need it, what it means. Rivista Italiana Di Politiche Pubbliche, 2(13), 221–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbroucke, F. (2014). The case for a European social union. European policy brief, 23. Retrieved from http://www.egmontinstitute.be/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/EPB-23.pdf.

  • Von Maydell, B., Borchardt, K., Henke, K. D., Leitner, R., Muffels, R., Quante, M., et al. (2006). Enabling social Europe. Berlin: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: Problems and remedies. In R. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 55–75). Thousang Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was made possible by grants from KU Leuven research council (OT/13/30), the Belgian National Lottery and the National Science Foundation FWO-Vlaanderen (Grant Number G068816 N).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sharon Baute.

Appendices

Appendix 1

See Table 5.

Table 5 Support for Social Europe among Belgians (percentages weighted by age, gender and education)

Appendix 2

See Table 6.

Table 6 Survey questions on a European social security system

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Baute, S., Meuleman, B., Abts, K. et al. Measuring Attitudes Towards Social Europe: A Multidimensional Approach. Soc Indic Res 137, 353–378 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1587-3

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1587-3

Keywords

Navigation