Abstract
The central aim of the present paper is to analyse the degree to which welfare problems accumulate over time and to what extent such an accumulation is related to class position and household formation. We utilize longitudinal data from the Swedish Survey of Living Conditions, following a panel that was first interviewed in 1979 and, thereafter, re-interviewed three times (1986–87, 1994–95 and 2002–03). We use structural equation modelling to extract latent deprivation indexes based on seven manifest indicators. Thereafter, the indexes are used as input values in a latent growth curve (LGC) model when estimating an intercept variable and a slope variable. We finally estimate two structural models. In the first model, the relation over time between class position, class mobility and deprivation are estimated, and the second model deals with the relationship between household types, change of household type and deprivation. Several interesting results can be reported. We find a strong relationship between the deprivation indexes over time. The LGC model can also confirm a positive relationship between deprivation intercept and deprivation slope. That is, individuals who score high on the deprivation index from the beginning are increasingly prone to accumulate additional welfare problems over time. The analysis also reveals a clear class gradient as well as effects of class mobility. In addition, it is shown that deprivation affects class mobility, meaning that we can confirm selection effects. Also household constellation and changes of household type are closely connected to deprivation and changes in deprivation over time. The analysis reveals selection effects even in this case.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Notes
The increased income dispersion between the two first and the two latter measurement points is partly an effect of changes of the way to measure income that were implemented in 1991. However, the main bulk of the development is related to substantial changes of the income distribution.
The 1979 sample is about twice as large as the latter sample, and the panel part was, therefore, split between 1986 and 1987.
References
Arthurson, K., & Jacobs, K. (2004). A Critique of the concept of social exclusion and its utility for Australian Social Housing Policy. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 39, 25–40.
Bask, M. (2005). Welfare problems and social exclusion among immigrants in Sweden. European Sociological Review, 21, 73–89.
Berthoud, R., Bryan, M., & Bardasi, E. (2004). The dynamics of deprivation: The relationship between income and material deprivation over time. Rep. 219, Department for Work and Pensions, Leeds.
Bihagen, E. (2000). The significance of class. Umeå: Department of Sociology, Umeå University.
Bihagen, E., & Halleröd, B. (2000). The crucial aspects of class: An assessment of the relevance of class in Sweden from the 1970’s to the 1990’s. Work, Employment and Society, 14, 307–330.
Bradshaw, J., & Finch, N. (2003). Overlaps in dimensions of poverty. Journal of Social Policy, 32, 513–525.
Burchardt, T., Le Grand, J., & Piachud, D. (2002). Introduction. In J. Hills, J. Le Grand, & D. Piachud (Eds.), Understanding social exclusion (pp. 1–12). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dannefer, D. (1987). Aging as intracohort differentiation: Accentuation, the Matthew effect, and the life course. Sociological Forum, 2, 211–236.
Dannefer, D. (2003). Cumulative advantage/disadvantage and the life course: Cross-fertilizing age and social science theory. Journals of Gerontology Series B-Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, S327–S337.
Ecob, R., & Davey Smith, G. (1999). Income and health: What is the nature of the relationship? Social Science and Medicine, 48, 693–705.
Erikson, R., & Goldthorpe, J. H. (1993). The constant flux: A study of class mobility in industrial societies. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Erikson, R., & Tåhlin, M. (1987). Coexistence of welfare problems. In R. Erikson, & R. Åberg (Eds.), Wefare in transition (pp. 257–280). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Fløtten, T. (2005). Poverty and social exclusion—Two sides of the same coin? A comparative study of Norway and Estonia. Oslo: Fafo.
Halleröd, B. (1991). Den svenska fattigdomen. Lund: Arkiv.
Halleröd, B. (1999). Economic standard of living: A longitudinal analysis of the economic standard among Swedes 1979–1995. European Societies, 1, 391–418.
Halleröd, B. (2001). Employment positions, class and economic hardship. In B. Furåker (Ed.), Employment, unemployment, Marginalization: Studies in contemporary labour markets. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell International.
Halleröd, B., Gordon, D., Larsson, D., & Ritakallio, V.-M. (2006). Relative deprivation—A comparative analysis of Britain, Finland and Sweden. Journal of European Social Policy, 16, 328–345.
Halleröd, B., & Heikkilä, M. (1999). Poverty and social exclusion in the nordic countries. In M. Kautto, M. Heikkilä, B. Hvinden, S. Marklund, & N. Ploug (Eds.), Nordic social policy (pp. 185–214). London: Routledge.
Halleröd, B., & Larsson, D. (2007). Poverty, welfare problems and social exclusion. International Journal of Social Welfare. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2007.00503.x
Hamaker, E. L. (2005). Conditions for the equivalence of the autoregressive latent trajectory model and a latent growth curve model with autoregressive disturbances. Sociological Methods and Research, 33, 404–416.
Hoyle, R. H. (1995). Structural equation modeling. London: Sage.
Inghe, G. (1960). De fattiga i folkhemmet. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells.
Jones, R. N., Rosenberg, A. L., Morris, J. N., Allaire, J. C., McCoy, K. J. M., et al. (2005). A growth curve model of learning acquisition among cognitively normal older adults. Experimental Aging Research, 31, 291–312.
Kangas, O., & Ritakallio, V.-M. (1998). Different methods—Different results? Approaches to multidimensional poverty. In H. J. Andreß (Ed.), Empirical poverty research in a comparative perspective (pp. 167–203). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Kangas, O., & Ritakallio, V.-M. (2004). Different methods—Different trends. Poverty in Finland in the 1990s. Turku: Department of Social Policy, University of Turku.
Llabre, M. M., Spitzer, S., Siegel, S., Saab, P. G., & Schneiderman, N. (2004). Applying latent growth curve modeling to the investigation of individual differences in cardiovascular recovery from stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66, 29–41.
Lynch, J., Davey Smith, G., Harper, S., & Hillemeier, M. (2004a). Is income inequality a determinant of population health? Part 2. U.S. national and regional trends in income inequality and age- and cause-specific mortality. The Milbank Quarterly, 82, 355–400.
Lynch, J., Davey Smith, G., Harper, S., Hillemeier, M., Ross, N., et al. (2004b). Is income inequality a determinant of population health? Part 1. A systematic review. The Milbank Quarterly, 82, 5–99.
Marmot, M. (2004). Status syndrome. London: Bloomsbury.
McArdle, J. J. (1988). Dynamic but structural equation modeling of repeated measures data. In R. B. Cattell, & J. Nesselroade (Eds.), Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology (pp. 561–614). New York: Plenum Press.
McFate, K., Smeeding, T., & Rainwater, L. (1995). Market and states: Poverty trends and transfer system effectiveness in the 1980s. In K. McFate, R. Lawson, & W. J. Wilson (Eds.), Poverty, inequality and the future of social policy (pp. 29–66). New York: Russel Sage Foundation.
Merton, R. K. (1968). The Matthew effect in science: The reward and communication systems of science are considered. Science, 159, 56–63.
Muthén, B. (1996). Growth modeling with binary responses. In A. V. Eye, & C. Clogg (Eds.), Categorical variables in developmental research: Methods of analysis (pp. 37–54). San Diego: Academic.
Muthén, B. (1997). Latent variable growth modeling with multilevel data. In M. Berkane (Ed.), Latent variable modeling with application to causality (pp. 149–161). New York: Springer.
Muthén, B., Kaplan, D., & Hollis, M. (1987). On structural equation modeling with data that are not missing completely at random. Psychometrika, 42, 431–462.
Muthén, B., & Khoo, S. T. (1998). Longitudinal studies of achievement growth using latent variable modeling. Learning and individual differences. Special Issue: Latent Growth Curve Analysis, 10, 73–101.
Nordenmark, M., Strandh, M., & Layte, R. (2006). The impact of unemployment benefit system on the mental well-being of the unemployed in Sweden, Ireland and Great Britain. European Societies, 8, 83–110.
O’Rand, A. M. (2002). Cumulative advantage theory in life-course research. In S. Crystal, & D. Shea (Eds.), Annual review of gerontology and geriatrics (pp. 14–30). New York: Springer.
Payne, S., & Pantazis, C. (1997). Poverty and gender. In D. Gordon, & C. Pantazis (Eds.), Breadline Britain in the 1990s (pp. 97–114). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Room, G. J. (1999). Social exclusion, solidarity and the challange of globalization. International Journal of Social Welfare, 8, 166–174.
SCB. (2007). Inkomstfördelningen 1975–2005. Stockholm: Statistics Sweden. http://www.scb.se/templates/tableOrChart163550.asp. Accessed 28 August 2007.
Scott, J. (1996). Stratification and power: Structures of class, status and command. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Sen, A. (1983). Poor, relatively speaking. Oxford Economic Papers, 35, 153–169.
Shawn, M., Dorling, D., Gordon, D., & Davey Smith, G. (1999). The widening gap. Bristol: The Policy Press.
SOU. (2001). Välfärdsbokslut för 1990-talet. Stockhom: Statens offentliga utredningar.
Stattin, M. (1998). Yrke, yrkesförändring och utslagning från arbetsmarknaden. Umeå: Department of Sociology, Umeå University.
Strandh, M. (2000). Varying unemployment experience? The economy and mental well-being. Umeå: Department of Sociology, Umeå University.
Walker, A., & Walker, C. (1997). Britain divided. The growth of social exclusion in the 1980s and 1990s. London: Child Poverty Action Group.
Willet, J. B., & Sayer, A. G. (1994). Using covariance structure analysis to detect correlates and predictors of individual change over time. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 363–381.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Mikael Bask, Olof Bäckman, Anders Nilsson and Xavier de Luna for helpful comments and suggestions. The usual disclaimer applies.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Halleröd, B., Bask, M. Accumulation of Welfare Problems in a Longitudinal Perspective. Soc Indic Res 88, 311–327 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9192-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9192-5