Abstract
With emerging technology and popularity of video-on-demand (VOD) services (e.g., Netflix, Hulu, Amazon Prime) that is higher than ever, the current media industry invites babies (< 2 years old) and toddlers (2–4 years old) into the growing consumer market. Although previous research has established that screen media targeted to children and adolescents largely portrays men and women in traditional gender roles, it is less clear how gender is portrayed in programs targeted toward the youngest viewers. The current study examined gender traits of the main characters in programs targeted to babies and children ages 2–4 that were disseminated via Hulu Kids. Comparisons between male and female characters in Babies programs and Kids 2–4 programs, respectively, showed that the characters were gender-stereotypically portrayed. However, both male characters and female characters were shown to be portrayed with masculine traits in programs targeting toddlers when compared within each gender. These results suggest even the youngest of viewers are exposed to narrow and traditional gender portrayals.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and material
The dataset used in this study can be made available individually at the discretion of the authors after a direct request from interested parties.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
References
Acker, J. (1992). From sex roles to gendered institutions. Contemporary Sociology, 21(5), 565–569. https://doi.org/10.2307/2075528
Aley, M., & Hahn, L. (2020). The powerful male hero: A content analysis of gender representation in posters for children’s animated movies. Sex Roles, 83(7–8), 499–509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01127-z
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Public Education. (2001). Children, adolescents, and television. Pediatrics (Evanston), 107(2), 423–426. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.107.2.423
American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Communications and Media. (2011). Media use by children younger than 2 years. Pediatrics, 128(5), 1040–1045. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1753
American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Communications and Media. (2016). Media and young minds. Pediatrics, 138(5), https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-2591. Article e20162591
American Psychological Association. (2007). Task force on the sexualization of girls. Report of the APA task force on the sexualization of girls. https://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf
Aubrey, J., & Harrison, K. (2004). The gender-role content of children’s favorite television programs and its links to their gender-related perceptions. Media Psychology, 6(2), 111–146. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532785xmep0602_1
Berke, D. S., Wilson, L., Mouilso, E., Speir, Z., & Zeichner, A. (2015). Isolating the gendered component of men’s physical aggression. Sex Roles, 72, 509–520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0488-7
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.676
Collins, R. (2011). Content analysis of gender roles in media: Where are we now and where should we go? Sex Roles, 64(3), 290–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9929-5
Collins, R., Strasburger, V., Brown, J., Donnerstein, E., Lenhart, A., & Ward, L. (2017). Sexual media and childhood well-being and health. Pediatrics, 140(Suppl 2), S162–S166. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1758X
Common Sense Media (2013). Zero to eight: Children’s media use in America. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/file/zero-to-eight-2013pdf-0/download
Common Sense Media (2017). The Common Sense Census: Media use by kids age zero to eight. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/uploads/research/csm_zerotoeight_fullreport_release_2.pdf
Common Sense Media (2020). The Common Sense Census: Media use by kids age zero to eight. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/uploads/research/2020_zero_to_eight_census_final_web.pdf
Coyne, S. M., Linder, J. R., Booth, M., Keenan-Kroff, S., Shawcroft, J. E., & Yang, C. (2021). Princess power: Longitudinal associations between engagement with princess culture in preschool and gender stereotypical behavior, body esteem, and hegemonic masculinity in early adolescence. Child Development, 92(6), 2413–2430. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13633
Coyne, S. M., Linder, J. R., Rasmussen, E. E., Nelson, D. A., & Birkbeck, V. (2016). Pretty as a princess: Longitudinal effects of engagement with Disney princesses on gender stereotypes, body esteem, and prosocial behavior in children. Child Development, 87(6), 1909–1925. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12569
Coyne, S. M., Linder, J. R., Rasmussen, E., Nelson, D. A., & Collier, K. M. (2014). It’s a bird! It’s a plane! It’s a gender stereotype!: Longitudinal associations between viewing superhero programs in the media and gender stereotypes in preschool children. Sex Roles, 70(9–10), 416–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0374-8
Coyne, S. M., Rogers, A., Shawcroft, J., & Hurst, J. L. (2021). Dressing up with Disney and make-believe with Marvel: The impact of gendered costumes on gender typing, prosocial behavior, and perseverance during early childhood. Sex Roles, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01217-y
DeLoache, J. S., & Chiong, C. (2009). Babies and baby media. The American Behavioral Scientist, 52(8), 1115–1135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209331537
Elias, N., Sulkin, I., & Lemish, D. (2017). Gender segregation on BabyTV: Old-time stereotypes for the very young. In D. Lemish & M. Gotz (Eds.), Beyond the stereotypes: Boys, girls and their images (pp. 95–104). Nordicom
England, D. E., Descartes, L., & Collier-Meek, M. A. (2011). Gender role portrayal and the Disney . Sex Roles, 64(7),555–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9930-7
Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). Sage
Gehrau, V., Brüggemann, T., & Handrup, J. (2016). Media and occupational aspirations: The effect of television on career aspirations of adolescents. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 60(3), 465–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2016.1203319
Gerding, A., & Signorielli, N. (2014). Gender roles in tween television programming: A content analysis of two genres. Sex Roles, 70(1–2), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0330-z
Gilmartin, P., & Brunn, S. D. (1998). The representation of women in political cartoons of the 1995 world conference on women. Women’s Studies International Forum, 21(5), 535–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-5395(98)00063-6
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance. Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56(2), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.2.109
Golden, J. C., & Jacoby, J. W. (2018). Playing princess: Preschool girls’ interpretations of gender stereotypes in Disney princess media. Sex Roles, 79(5), 299–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0773-8
Gutierrez, B. C, Halim, M. L. D, Ng, F. F-Y, Kwak, K., Ortiz-Cubias, S., Cheng, G. Y-L, & Sze, I. N-L. (2020). Gendered appearances among young children and in the media: An East-West cultural comparison. Sex Roles, 82(5–6), 306–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01059-3
Hains, R. (2007). Inventing the teenage girl: The construction of female identity in Nickelodeon’s My Life as a Teenage Robot. Popular Communication, 5(3), 191–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/15405700701384855
Hall, S. (2003). Introduction to media studies at the centre. In S. Hall, D. Hobson, A. Lowe, & P. Willis (Eds.), Culture, media, language (pp. 114–119). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203381182
Hamlen, K. R., & Imbesi, K. J. (2020). Role models in the media: A content analysis of preschool television programs in the U.S. Journal of Children and Media, 14(3), 302–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2019.1689369
Harrison, A. C., & O’Neill, S. A. (2002). II. The development of children’s gendered knowledge and preferences in music. Feminism & Psychology, 12(2), 145–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353502012002004
Hawkins, I., Ratan, R., Blair, D., & Fordham, J. (2019). The effects of gender role stereotypes in digital learning games on motivation for STEM achievement. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 28(6), 628–637. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-019-09792-w
Heldman, C., Cooper, R., Narayanan, S., Somandepalli, K., Burrows, E., Christensen, S., … Virgo, J. (2020). See Jane 2020 Report. The Geena Davis Institute for Gender in Media at Mount St. Mary’s. https://seejane.org/wp-content/uploads/2020-film-historic-gender-parity-in-family-films-report-4.20.pdf
Hentges, B., & Case, K. (2013). Gender representations on Disney Channel, Cartoon Network, and Nickelodeon Broadcasts in the United States. Journal of Children and Media, 7(3), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2012.729150
Hine, B., England, D., Lopreore, K., Skora Horgan, E., & Hartwell, L. (2018). The rise of the androgynous princess: Examining representations of gender in prince and princess characters of Disney movies released 2009–2016. Social Sciences, 7(12), 245. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci7120245
Hunting, K., Grumbein, A., & Cahill, M. (2018). Watch and learn: Gendered discrepancies in educational messages on television channels targeted at boys versus girls. Mass Communication and Society, 21(1), 115–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2017.1370114
Hust, S. J. T., & Brown, J. D. (2008). Gender, media use, and effects. In S. L. Calvert, & B. J. Wilson (Eds.), The handbook of children, media, and development (pp. 98–120). Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Hust, S., & Rodgers, K. B. (2018). Scripting adolescent romance: Adolescents talk about romantic relationships and media’s sexual scripts. Peter Lang
Izci, B., Jones, I., Özdemir, T. B., Alktebi, L., & Bakir, E. (2019). Youtube & young children: Research, concerns and new directions. In R. Brito, & P. Dias (Eds.), Crianças, famílias e tecnologias. Que desafios? Que caminhos? (pp. 81–92). Centro Interdisciplinar de Estudos Educacionais
Jordan, A. (2004). The role of media in children’s development: An ecological perspective. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 25(3), 196–206. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200406000-00009
Kabali, H., Irigoyen, M., Nunez-Davis, R., Budacki, J., Mohanty, S., Leister, K., & Bonner, R. (2015). Exposure and use of mobile media devices by young children. Pediatrics, 136(6), 1044–1050. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-2151
Kaiser Family Foundation. (2007). Parents, children & media: A Kaiser Family Foundation Survey. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED542901.pdf
Kim, H. Y. (2017). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Chi-squared test and Fisher’s exact test. Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics, 42(2), 152. https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2017.42.2.152
Larson, R. (2001). Children and adolescents in a changing media world. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 66(1), 148–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5834.00133
Lemus, S. (2013). Men in the office, women in the kitchen? Contextual dependency of gender stereotype activation in Spanish women. Sex Roles, 70(11/12), 468–478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0328-6
Levine, K. J., Miller, V. D., Quilliam, E. T., McAlister, A. R., & Aley, M. R. (2021). Socialization to science: Using media to help young people in the United States consider a career in a STEM-related field. Communication Studies, 72(4), 547–562. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2021.1953556
Lombard, M., Snyder-Duch, J., & Bracken, C. C. (2002). Content analysis in mass communication: Assessment and reporting of intercoder reliability. Human Communication Research, 28, 587–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2001.tb00826.x
Lovejoy, J. P., Watson, B. R., Lacy, S., & Riffe, D. (2016). Three decades of reliability in communication content analyses. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 93, 1135–1159. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699016644558
Macionis, J., & Plummer, K. (2005). Sociology: A global introduction. Pearson Prentice Hall
Mahalik, J. R., Good, G. E., & Englar-Carlson, M. (2003). Masculinity scripts, presenting concerns, and help seeking: Implications for practice and training. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34(2), 123. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.34.2.123
Maher, J., Fraser, S., & Wright, J. (2010). Framing the mother: Childhood obesity, maternal responsibility and care. Journal of Gender Studies, 19(3), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589231003696037
McCready, A. M., Schutts, J., & McCreary, G. R. (2021). Fraternities as settings for sexual assault: The relationships of traditional masculine norms climates and sexual assault attitudes. Psychology of Men & Masculinities. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000375
Murnen, S. K., Wright, C., & Kaluzny, G. (2002). If “Boys will be boys,” then girls will be victims? A meta-analytic review of the research that relates masculine ideology to sexual aggression. Sex Roles, 46, 359–375. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020488928736
Obierefu, P. O., & Ojedokun, O. (2019).Masculinity as predictor of rape-supportive attitude among men. Psychological Studies, 64(1), 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12646-019-00478-2
Ofcom (2019). Life on the small screen: What children are watching and why. Ofcom. https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0021/134832/Ofcom-childrens-content-review-Publish.pdf
Pollack, W. (1998). Real boys: Rescuing our sons from the myths of boyhood. Random House
Rousseau, A., Beyens, I., Eggermont, S., & Vandenbosch, L. (2017). The dual role of media internalization in adolescent sexual behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(6), 1685–1697. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0902-4
Rousseau, A., & Eggermont, S. (2018). Television and preadolescents’ objectified dating script: Consequences for self- and interpersonal objectification. Mass Communication and Society, 21(1), 71–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2017.1341533
Ruble, D. N., Taylor, L. J., Cyphers, L., Greulich, F. K., Lurye, L., & Shrout, P. E. (2007). The role of gender constancy in early gender development. Child Development, 78(4), 1121–1136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01056.x
Schlesinger, M. A., & Richert, R. A. (2019). The role of gender in young children’s selective trust of familiar STEM characters. Media Psychology, 22(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2017.1328311
Signorielli, N. (1990). Children, television, and gender roles: Messages and impact. Journal of Adolescent Health, 11(1), 50–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-0070(90)90129-P
Signorielli, N., & Bacue, A. (1999). Recognition and respect: A content analysis of prime-time television characters across three decades. Sex Roles, 40(7), 527–544. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018883912900
Sink, A., & Mastro, D. (2017). Depictions of gender on primetime television: A quantitative content analysis. Mass Communication and Society, 20(1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2016.1212243
Skočajić, M. M., Radosavljević, J. G., Okičić, M. G., Janković, I. O., & Žeželj, I. L. (2020). Boys just don’t! Gender stereotyping and sanctioning of counter-stereotypical behavior in preschoolers. Sex Roles, 82(3–4), 163–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01051-x
Smith, S., & Choueiti, M. (2010). Gender disparity on screen and behind the camera in family films. Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media. https://seejane.org/wp-content/uploads/full-study-gender-disparity-in-family-films-v2.pdf
Smith, S., Pieper, L., Granados, K., & Choueiti, M. (2010). Assessing gender-related portrayals in top-grossing G-rated films. Sex Roles, 62(11), 774–786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9736-z
Spinner, L., Cameron, L., & Calogero, R. (2018). Peer toy play as a gateway to children’s gender flexibility: The effect of (counter) stereotypic portrayals of peers in children’s magazines. Sex Roles, 79(5), 314–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0883-3
Stone, E. A., Brown, C. S., & Jewell, J. A. (2015). The sexualized girl: A within-gender stereotype among elementary school children. Child Development, 86(5), 1604–1622. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12405
Streiff, M., & Dundes, L. (2017). Frozen in time: How Disney gender-stereotypes its most powerful princess. Social Sciences, 6(2), 38. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci6020038
Thompson, T. L., & Zerbinos, E. (1995). Gender roles in animated cartoons: Has the picture changed in 20 years? Sex Roles, 32, 651–673. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544217
Tomopoulos, S., Dreyer, B. P., Berkule, S., Fierman, A. H., Brockmeyer, C., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2010). Infant media exposure and toddler development. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164(12), 1105–1111. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.235
Trekels, J., & Eggermont, S. (2018). “I can/should look like a media figure”: The association between direct and indirect media exposure and teens’ sexualizing appearance behaviors. Journal of Sex Research, 55(3), 320–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1387754
Tuchman, G. (2000). The symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media. In L. Crothers, & C. Lockhart (Eds.), Culture and politics (pp. 150–174). Palgrave Macmillan
Valkenburg, P. M., & Piotrowski, J. T. (2018). Plugged In. Yale University Press
Vernon, J. A., Williams Jr, J. A., Phillips, T., & Wilson, J. (1991). Media stereotyping: A comparison of the way elderly women and men are portrayed on prime-time television. Journal of Women & Aging, 2(4), 55–68. https://doi.org/10.1300/J074v02n04_05
Ward, L. M., & Grower, P. (2020). Media and the development of gender role stereotypes. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 2, 177–199. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-051120-010630
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & society, 1(2), 125–151. Sage Publications
Wille, E., Gaspard, H., Trautwein, U., Oschatz, K., Scheiter, K., & Nagengast, B. (2018). Gender stereotypes in a children’s television program: Effects on girls’ and boys’ stereotype endorsement, math performance, motivational dispositions, and attitudes. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2435. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02435
Wood, J. (1997). Gendered lives: Communication, gender, and culture (2nd ed.). Wadsworth Publishing Company
Funding
No funds, grants, or other support was received.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest/Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kang, S., Hust, S.J. Traditionally and Narrowly Defined: Gender Portrayals in Television Programming Targeting Babies and Toddlers. Sex Roles 86, 576–586 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01286-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01286-1