Abstract
We examine the roles of gender, gender attitudes, and interest in sports on public attitudes about transgender people’s participation in athletics. Using a representative survey of 1020 adults in the United States from 2015 and after controlling for a variety of demographic, political, and attitudinal factors, we find that women, consistent with their gender identity, are more supportive than men of transgender athletes participating in sports. In addition, we find that individuals who hold traditional gender role beliefs and those who have greater gender identity conformity with their gender are less likely to support transgender athletes’ participation. The effects of gender identity conformity and beliefs in traditional gender roles are also conditioned by respondents’ gender. Sports fans are more likely to oppose transgender athletes’ participation, and female sports fans have views that resemble those of male sports fans. Finally, respondents who have contact with transgender people and those with stronger egalitarian attitudes are more favorable toward transgender participation whereas those espousing high moral traditionalism are more opposed. Our findings highlight areas of support and resistance to transgender athletes, and our work might be helpful to policymakers, as well as advocates, who promote inclusion.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American National Election Studies. (2015). User’s guide and codebook for the ANES 2012 Time Series Study. Retrieved on December 14, 2019 from https://electionstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/anes_timeseries_2012_userguidecodebook.pdf.
Anderson, D., & Stone, G. P. (1981). Responses of male and female metropolitans to the commercialization of professional sport 1960 to 1975. International Review of Sport Sociology, 16(3), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/101269028101600301.
Anderson, E., & Travers, A. (2017). Transgender athletes in competitive sport. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315304274.
Atkinson, M. (2009). Openly gay athletes. In M. Atkinson (Ed.), Battleground sports (pp. 295–300). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Babb, K. (2017). Transgender wrestler Mack Beggs identifies as a male. He just won the Texas state girls title. Washington Post. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/highschools/meet-the-texas-wrestler-who-won-a-girls-state-title-his-name-is-mack/2017/02/25/982bd61c-fb6f-11e6-be05-1a3817ac21a5_story.html?utm_term=.df093da0886b
Banaszak, L. (2006). The gendering state and citizens' attitudes toward women's roles: State policy, employment, and religion in Germany. Politics & Gender, 2(1), 29–55. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X06060016.
Beckwith, K. (2005). A common language of gender. Politics & Gender, 1(1), 128–137. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X05211017.
Bem, S. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354–364. https://doi.org/10.1037/033-295X.88.4.3541.
Bermon, S., & Garnier, P. (2017). Serum androgen levels and their relation to performance in track and field: Mass spectrometry results from 2127 observations in male and female elite athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(17), 1309–1314. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097792.
Bittner, A., & Goodyear-Grant, E. (2017). Sex isn’t gender: Reforming concepts and measurements in the study of public opinion. Political Behavior, 39(4), 1019–1041. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-017-9391-y.
Boren, C. (2018). Transgender wrestler Mack Beggs wins second Texas state girls’ championship. Washington Post. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2018/02/25/transgender-wrestler-mack-beggs-wins-second-texas-state-girls-championship/?utm_term=.cd5c428ec545.
Borer, M. (2009). Negotiating the symbols of gendered sports fandom. Social Psychology Quarterly, 72(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1177/019027250907200101.
Brewer, P. R. (2003). Values, political knowledge, and public opinion about gay rights. Public Opinion Quarterly, 67, 173–201. https://doi.org/10.1086/374397.
Brewer, M., & Lui, L. (1989). The primacy of age and sex in the structure of person categories. Social Cognition, 7(3), 262–274. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.1989.7.3.262.
Broussard, K., & Warner, R. (2019). Gender nonconformity is perceived differently for cisgender and transgender targets. Sex Roles, 80(7–8), 409–428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0947-z.
Burns, N. (2005). Finding gender. Politics & Gender, 1(1), 137–141. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X05221013.
Carroll, H. (2014). Joining the team: The inclusion of transgender students in United States school-based athletics. In J. Hargreaves & E. Anderson (Eds.), Routledge handbook of sport, gender, and sexuality (pp. 367–375). Abingdon and New York: Routledge.
Casey, L. (2016). Emotional agendas: Disgust and the dynamics of LGBT politics (doctoral dissertation). University of Michigan, MI. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2016.1260482.
Chen, V. (2018). Ethical issues concerning transgender athletes. Penn Bioethics Journal, 14(1), 15-18. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from http://bioethicsjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/PBJ-Fall-2018-final-v4.pdf.
Christie, J. (2006). Slight against transsexual rival could cost racer. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/slight-against-transsexual-rival-could-cost-racer/article4109728/.
Clark, A. (2017). Updating the gender gap(s): A multilevel approach to what underpins changing cultural attitudes. Politics & Gender, 13(1), 26–56. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X16000520.
Cooky, C., Dycus, R., & Dworkin, S. (2012). “What makes a woman a woman?” versus “our first lady of sport”: A comparative analysis of the United States and the south African media coverage of caster Semenya. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 37(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723512447940.
Crawford, G., & Gosling, V. (2004). The myth of the “puck bunny”: Female fans and men’s ice hockey. Sociology, 38(3), 477–493. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038504043214.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of a test. Psychometrika, 16, 297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555.
Cunningham, G., & Pickett, A. (2018). Trans prejudice in sport: Differences from LGB prejudice, the influence of gender, and changes over time. Sex Roles, 78(3–4), 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0791-6.
Davis, H. F. (2017). Beyond trans: Does gender matter? New York: New York University Press.
DeBell, M., Wilson, C., Segura, G., Jackman, S., & Hutchings, V. (2011). Methodology report and user’s guide for the ANES 2010-2012 Evaluations of Government and Society Study. Palo Alto, CA and Ann Arbor, MI: Stanford University and the University of Michigan. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://electionstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/anes_specialstudies_2010-2012_egss_userguide.pdf.
Dickinson, B. D., Genel, M., Robinowitz, C. B., Turner, P. L., & Woods, G. L. (2002). Gender verification of female Olympic athletes. Medicine, Science, Sport & Exercise, 34(10), 1539–1542. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200210000-00001.
Doyle, C. M., Rees, A. M., & Titus, T. L. (2015). Perceptions of same-sex relationships and marriage as gender role violations (sexism). Journal of Homosexuality, 62(11), 1576–1598. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2015.1073038.
Duerst-Lahti, G., & Kelly, R. M. (1995). On governance, leadership and gender. In G. Duerst-Lahti & R. M. Kelly (Eds.), Gender power, leadership and governance (pp. 11–37). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Dutee Andersonv. Athletics Federation of India (AFI) & The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). (2015) CAS 2014/A/3759. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://plawyered.files.wordpress.com/2015/09/dutee-chand-v-athletics-federation-of-india-afi-the-international-association-of-athletics-federations-iaaf.pdf.
Eklund, E., Berglund, B., Labrie, F., Carlström, K., Ekström, L., & Hirschberg, A. L. (2017). Serum androgen profile and physical performance in women Olympic athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(17), 1301–1308. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097582.
Elosua Oliden, P., & Zumbo, B. D. (2008). Reliability coefficients for ordinal response scales. Psicothema, 20(4), 896-901. Retrieved on August 26, 2019 from http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3572.pdf.
Feldman, S., & Stenner, K. (1997). Perceived threat and authoritarianism. Political Psychology, 18, 741–770. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00077.
Filler, N., & Jennings, M. K. (2015). Familial origins of gender role attitudes. Politics & Gender, 11(1), 27–54. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X1400059.
Flores, A. R. (2015). Attitudes toward transgender rights: Perceived knowledge and secondary interpersonal contact. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 3(3), 398–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2015.1050414.
Flores, A. R., Herman, J, Gates, G. J., & Brown T. N. T. (2016). How many adults identify as transgender in the United States? Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/How-Many-Adults-Identify-as-Transgender-in-the-United-States.pdf.
Flores, A. R., Haider-Markel, D. P., Lewis, D. C., Miller, P. R., Tadlock, B. L., & Taylor, J. K. (2017). Challenged expectations: Mere exposure effects on attitudes about transgender people and rights. Political Psychology, 39(1), 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12402.
Frederickson, H. G. (1971). Toward a new public administration. In F. Marini (Ed.), Toward a new public administration: The Minnowbrook perspective (pp. 309–331). Scranton, PA: Chandler.
Gadermann, A. M., Guhn, M., & Zumbo, B. D. (2012). Estimating ordinal reliability for Likert-type and ordinal item response data: A conceptual, empirical, and practical guide. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 17(3), 1-13. Retrieved on August 26, 2019 from https://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=17&n=3.
Gaines, N. S., & Garand, J. C. (2010). Morality, equality, or locality: Analyzing the determinants of support for same-sex marriage. Political Research Quarterly, 63(3), 553–567. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912909333132.
GfK (n.d.). KnowledgePanel® A methodological overview. Retrieved on October 9, 2019 from https://www.gfk.com/fileadmin/user_upload/dyna_content/US/documents/KnowledgePanel_-_A_Methodological_Overview.pdf.
Gooren, L., & Bunck, M. (2004). Transsexuals and competitive sports. European Journal of Endocrinology, 151, 425–429. https://doi.org/10.1530/eje.0.1510425.
Griffin, P. (1998). Strong women, deep closets: Lesbians and homophobia in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
Grundy, P., & Rader, B. (2015). American sports: From the age of folk games to the age of television (7th ed.). New York: Routledge.
Haider-Markel, D., & Vieux, A. (2008). Gender and conditional support for torture in the war on terror. Politics & Gender, 4(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X08000019.
Haider-Markel, D., Miller, P., Flores, A., Lewis, D., Tadlock, B., & Taylor, J. (2017). Bringing “T” to the table: Understanding individual support of transgender candidates for public office. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 5(3), 399–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2016.1272472.
Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7.
Harden, M., & Whiteside, E. (2012). How do women talk sports?: Women sports fans in blog community. In K. Toffoletti & P. Mewett (Eds.), Sport and its female fans (pp. 153–168). New York: Routledge.
Harrison, B. F., & Michelson, M. R. (2017). Listen, we need to talk: How to change attitudes about LGBT rights. New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrof:oso/9780190654740.001.0001.
Harrison, B. F., & Michelson, M. R. (2019). Gender, masculinity threat, and support for transgender rights: An experimental study. Sex Roles, 80(1–2), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0916-6.
Harry, J. (1995). Sports ideology, attitudes toward women, and anti-homosexual attitudes. Sex Roles, 32(1–2), 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544760.
Hatemi, P., McDermott, R., Bailey, J. M., & Martin, N. (2012). The different effects of gender and sex on vote choice. Political Research Quarterly, 65(1), 76–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912910391475.
Herek, G. M. (2002). Gender gaps in public opinion about lesbians and gay men. Public Opinion Quarterly, 66, 40–66. https://doi.org/10.1086/338409.
International Olympic Committee (2003). Statement of the Stockholm Consensus on Sex Reassignment in Sports. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://stillmed.olympic.org/AssetsDocs/importednews/documents/en_report_905.pdf.
International Olympic Committee. (2015). IOC consensus meeting on sex reassignment and hyperandrogenism. Retrieved from https://stillmed.olympic.org/Documents/Commissions_PDFfiles/Medical_commission/2015-11_ioc_consensus_meeting_on_sex_reassignment_and_hyperandrogenism-en.pdf.
Jennings, M. K. (2006). The gender gap in attitudes and beliefs about the place of women in American political life: A longitudinal, cross-generational analysis. Politics & Gender, 2(2), 193–219. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X06060089.
Jones, B., Arcelus, J., Bouman, W., & Haycraft, E. (2017). Sport and transgender people: A systematic review of the literature relating to sport participation and competitive sport policies. Sports Medicine, 47(4), 701–716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0621-y.
Jones, P. E., Brewer, P. R., Young, D. G., Lambe, J. L., & Hoffman, L. H. (2018). Explaining public opinion toward transgender people, rights, and candidates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 82(2), 252–278. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfy009.
Kerr, P., & Holden, R. (1996). Development of the gender role beliefs scale (GRBS). Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 11(5), 3-16. Retrieved on October 9, 2019 from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxyau.wrlc.org/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=e7a2efd1-47c9-4a20-83b9-b0885019a607%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=360748&db=aph.
Kessler, S., & McKenna, W. (1978). Gender: An ethnomethodological approach. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
Koivula, N. (2001). Perceived characteristics of sports categorized as gender-neutral, feminine and masculine. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24(4), 377-393. Retrieved on October 9, 2019 from https://search-proquest-com.proxyau.wrlc.org/docview/215875909?accountid=8285&rfr_id=info%3Axri%2Fsid%3Aprimo.
Lee, W., & Cunningham, G. (2016). Gender, sexism, sexual prejudice, and identification with U.S. football and men’s figure skating. Sex Roles, 74(9–10), 464–471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0598-x.
Lewis, D., Flores, A., Haider-Markel, D., Miller, P., Tadlock, B., & Taylor, J. (2017). Degrees of acceptance: Variation in public attitudes toward segments of the LGBT community. Political Research Quarterly, 70(4), 861–875. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912917717352.
Lewis, D., Flores, A., Haider-Markel, D., Miller, P., Tadlock, B., & Taylor, J. (2019). Public attitudes on transgender military service: The role of gender. Armed Forces & Society. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1177/0095327X19861737.
Lieberman, S. (1991). The popular culture: Sport in America—A look at the avid sports fan. The Public Perspective: A Roper Center Review of Public Opinion and Polling, 2(6), 28-29. Retrieved on October 9, 2019 from https://ropercenter.cornell.edu/sites/default/files/2018-07/26028.pdf.
Longman, J. (2019). Caster Semenya may run an 800 without hormone treatment, Swiss court says. New York Times. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/03/sports/caster-semenya.html.
Love, A. (2014). Transgender exclusion and inclusion in sport. In J. Hargreaves & E. Anderson (Eds.), Routledge handbook of sport, gender, and sexuality (pp. 376–383). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203121375-52.
McDermott, M. (2016). Masculinity, femininity, and American political behavior. New York: Oxford University Press.
McDermott, R., & Hatemi, P. (2011). Distinguishing sex and gender. PS: Political Science & Politics, 44(1), 89–92. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096510001939.
Messner, M. (1992). Power at play: Sports and the problem of masculinity. Boston, MA: Beacon.
Meyerowitz, J. (2002). How sex changed: A history of transsexuality in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Miller, T., & Kobayashi, M. (2000). Citizen surveys: How to do them, how to use them, what they mean. Washington, DC: International City/County Management Association.
Miller, P., Flores, A., Haider-Markel, D., Lewis, D., Tadlock, B., & Taylor, J. (2017). Transgender politics as body politics: Effects of disgust sensitivity and authoritarianism on transgender rights attitudes. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 5(1), 4–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2016.1260482.
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2011). NCAA inclusion of transgender student-athletes. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://www.ncaa.org/sites/default/files/Transgender_Handbook_2011_Final.pdf.
Norton, A. T., & Herek, G. M. (2013). Heterosexuals’ attitudes toward transgender people: Findings from a national probability sample of US adults. Sex Roles, 68(11–12), 738–753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0110-6.
Olatunji, B. (2008). Disgust, scrupulosity and conservative attitudes about sex: Evidence for a mediational model of homophobia. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1364–1369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.04.001.
Page, B., & Shapiro, R. (1992). The rational public: Fifty years of trends in Americans' policy preferences. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Pell, S. (2019). Girls say Connecticut’s transgender athlete policy violates title IX, file federal complaint. Washington Post. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2019/06/19/girls-say-connecticuts-transgender-athlete-policy-violates-title-ix-file-federal-complaint/?noredirect=on.
Pérez, E. O., & Hetherington, M. J. (2014). Authoritarianism in black and white: Testing the cross-racial validity of the child rearing scale. Political Analysis, 22, 398–412. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpu002.
Peters, J., Becker, J., & Davis, J. H. (2017). Trump rescinds rules on bathrooms for transgender students. New York Times. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/22/us/politics/devos-sessions-transgender-students-rights.html.
Prusaczyk, E., & Hodson, G. (2019). The roles of political conservatism and binary gender beliefs in predicting prejudices toward gay men and people who are transgender. Sex Roles. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01069-1.
Rabelo, V. C., & Cortina, L. M. (2014). Two sides of the same coin: Gender harassment and heterosexist harassment in LGBTQ work lives. Law and Human Behavior, 38(4), 378–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000087.
Raykov, T. (1997). Scale reliability, Cronbach’s coefficient alpha, and violations of tau-equivalence for fixed congeneric components. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 32, 329–354. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3204_2.
Raykov, T., Dimitrov, D. M., & Asparouhov, T. (2010). Evaluation of scale reliability with binary measures using latent variable modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 17(2), 265–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511003659417.
Reeser, J. C. (2005). Gender identity and sport: Is the playing field level? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39, 695–699. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2005.018119.
Richards v. U.S. Tennis Assn (1977) 93 Misc. 2d 713, 400 N.Y.S.2d 267 (Sup. Ct. 1977).
Romo, V. (2018). IAAF sets new limits on testosterone levels in women. National Public Radio. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/04/26/606039409/iaaf-sets-new-limits-on-testosterone-levels-in-women.
Rosenthal, C. (2008). Sports talk: How gender shapes discursive framing of title IX. Politics & Gender, 4(1), 65–92. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X080000032.
Sabo, D., & Runfola, R. (1980). Jock: Sports and male identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Sapiro, V. (2003). Theorizing gender in political psychology research. In D. O. Sears, L. Huddy, & R. Jervis (Eds.), Oxford handbook of political psychology (pp. 601–634). New York: Oxford University Press.
State of Texas et al. v. United States of America et al. (2016) No. 7:16-cv-00054-O (S.D. Tex. 2016).
Tadlock, B. (2014). Issue framing and transgender politics: An examination of interest group websites and media coverage. In J. Taylor & D. Haider-Markel (Eds.), Transgender rights and politics: Groups, issue framing, and policy adoption (pp. 25–48). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Tadlock, B., Flores, A., Haider-Markel, D., Lewis, D., Miller, P., & Taylor, J. (2017). Testing contact theory and attitudes on transgender rights. Public Opinion Quarterly, 81(4), 956–972. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfx021.
Taylor, J. (2007). Transgender identities and public policy in the United States: The relevance for public administration. Administration & Society, 39(7), 833–856. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399707305548.
Taylor, J., Lewis, D., & Haider-Markel, D. (2018a). The remarkable rise of transgender rights. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Taylor, J., Lewis, D., Haider-Markel, D., Flores, A., Miller, P., & Tadlock, B. (2018b). The factors underlying public opinion about transgender rights. In J. Taylor, D. Lewis, & D. Haider-Markel (Eds.), The remarkable rise of transgender rights (pp. 87–103). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Thomas, L. (2019). The 2019 world cup has become a referendum on women’s sports. The New Yorker Retrieved from https://www.newyorker.com/sports/sporting-scene/the-womens-world-cup-has-become-a-referendum-on-womens-sports.
Thorson, E. A., & Serazio, M. (2018). Sports fandom and political attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 82(2), 391–403. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfy018.
United States Department of Education (2016). Dear colleague letter on transgender students. Retrieved on June 28, 2017 from https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-201605-title-ix-transgender.pdf.
Wade, L., & Marx Ferree, M. (2015). Gender: Ideas, interactions and institutions. New York: W.W. Norton.
Westbrook, L., & Schilt, K. (2014). Doing gender, determining gender: Transgender people, gender panics, and the maintenance of the sex/gender/sexuality system. Gender & Society, 28(1), 32–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213503203.
West-Sell, S., Van Ness, J., & Ciccolella, M. (2019). Law, policy, and physiology as determinants of fairness for transgender athletes. Professionalization of Exercise Physiology, 22(2), 1-10. Retrieved on August 14, 2019 from https://www.asep.org/files/1315/5922/3221/PEPonlineJUNE2019_Fairness_for_Transgender_Athletes.pdf.
Whitley, B. (2001). Gender role variables and attitudes toward homosexuality. Sex Roles, 45(11–12), 691–721. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015640318045.
Winter, N. J. G. (2005). Framing gender: Political rhetoric, gender schemas, and public opinion on U.S. health care reform. Politics & Gender, 1(3), 453–480. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X05050130.
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. (2015). Two traditions of research on gender identity. Sex Roles, 73, 461–473. https://doi.org/10.10072/Fs11199-015-0480-2.
Acknowledgements
The present research was jointly funded by the University of Toledo, University of Kansas, the Williams Institute at the UCLA School of Law, and Ohio University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interests
The authors do not declare any real or perceived direct financial benefit from this research. As with publications of peer-reviewed work, a publication may be considered in collection with other publications for promotion and/or tenure at our respective institutions. Research grants from the University of Toledo, University of Kansas, the Williams Institute at the UCLA School of Law, and Ohio University supported the survey data collection, which is used in this study. The authors did not receive personal compensation from these grants to pursue this research.
Beyond that, the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Research Involving Human Participants
The author’s home institutions independently approved this research as “Exempt” from human subjects review. Note that the corresponding author, who holds a dual affiliation, pursued this exemption status through the Human Subjects Review Board at the University of California at Los Angeles (where he was employed full time during the data collection).
Informed Consent
Human subjects were given informed consent when they were invited to participate in this study. If subjects did not consent to the study, then data were not collected from them.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 26 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Flores, A.R., Haider-Markel, D.P., Lewis, D.C. et al. Public Attitudes about Transgender Participation in Sports: The Roles of Gender, Gender Identity Conformity, and Sports Fandom. Sex Roles 83, 382–398 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01114-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01114-z