Abstract
The purpose of the present research was to examine the perceptions of women who drink in social contexts through the lens of dehumanization (Haslam 2006). Across three experiments, we manipulated the presence of alcohol by depicting a woman at a bar with a bottle of beer or a bottle of water and measured dehumanization. As hypothesized, women were dehumanized more in the alcohol condition than in the water condition by men (Experiments 1–3) and women (Experiments 2 and 3). Notably, the presence of alcohol compared to water had no impact on dehumanization of men (Experiment 2). Also, as hypothesized, perceived intoxication emerged as a significant mediator of the link between alcohol condition and dehumanization in Experiments 1 and 2, and alcohol quantity predicted greater dehumanization in Experiment 3. Extending the present work to prior work in this area, Experiment 3 also examined the links among alcohol, perceived sexual availability, and dehumanization, revealing that perceived sexual availability mediated the link between alcohol and dehumanization. Implications for theories of dehumanization, alcohol, and social perception as well as practical implications of these findings are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbey, A. (2011). Alcohol's role in sexual violence perpetration: Theoretical explanations, existing evidence and future directions. Drug and Alcohol Review, 30, 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2011.00296.x.
Abbey, A., & Harnish, R. J. (1995). Perception of sexual intent: The role of gender, alcohol consumption, and rape supportive attitudes. Sex Roles, 32, 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01544599.
Abbey, A., Ross, L. T., Mcduffie, D., & McAuslan, P. (1996). Alcohol and dating risk factors for sexual assault among college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 147–169. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00669.x.
Abbey, A., Zawacki, T., & McAuslan, P. (2000). Alcohol's effects on sexual perception. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61, 688–697. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2000.61.688.
Abbey, A., Zawacki, T., Buck, P. O., Clinton, A. M., & McAuslan, P. (2001). Alcohol and sexual assault. Alcohol Research & Health, 25, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412958479.n25.
Anderson, K. G., Smith, G. T., & Fischer, S. F. (2003). Women and acquired preparedness: Personality and learning implications for alcohol use. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64, 384–392. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2003.64.384.
Bain, P., Park, J., Kwok, C., & Haslam, N. (2009). Attributing human uniqueness and human nature to cultural groups: Distinct forms of subtle dehumanization. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12, 789–805. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430209340415.
Bandura, A. (1990). Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development: Theory, research and applications (pp. 45–104). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 193–209. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_3.
Bandura, A. (2006). Toward a psychology of human agency. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 164–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00011.x.
Bandura, A., Underwood, B., & Fromson, M. E. (1975). Disinhibition of aggression through diffusion of responsibility and dehumanization of victims. Journal of Research in Personality, 9, 253–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(75)90001-X.
Banyard, V. L., Moynihan, M. M., & Plante, E. G. (2007). Sexual violence prevention through bystander education: An experimental evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 463–481. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20159.
Bar-Tal, D. (1990). Causes and consequences of delegitimization: Models of conflict and ethnocentrism. Journal of Social Issues, 46, 65–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb00272.x.
Bartky, S. L. (1990). Femininity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression. New York: Routledge.
Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2010). Excluded from humanity: The dehumanizing effects of social ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 107–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.06.022.
Bastian, B., Denson, T. F., & Haslam, N. (2013a). The roles of dehumanization and moral outrage in retributive justice. PLoS One, 8, e61842. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.006184.
Bastian, B., Jetten, J., Chen, H., Radke, H. R. M., Harding, J. F., & Fasoli, F. (2013b). Losing our humanity: The self-dehumanizing consequences of social ostracism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 156–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212471205.
Beckman, L. J., & Ackerman, K. T. (1995). Women, alcohol and sexuality. Recent Developments in Alcohol, 12, 267–285.
Blake, K. R., Bastian, B., & Denson, T. F. (2016). Perceptions of low agency and high sexual openness mediate the relationship between sexualization and sexual aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 42, 483–497. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21644.
Blume, S. B. (1991). The problems of quantifying alcohol consumption. Addiction, 86, 1059–1060. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.
Burn, S. M. (2009). A situational model of sexual assault prevention through bystander intervention. Sex Roles, 60, 779–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9581-5.
Cameron, C. D., Harris, L. T., & Payne, K. (2016). The emotional cost of humanity: Anticipated exhaustion motivates dehumanization of stigmatized targets. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7, 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550615604453.
Capraro, R. L. (2000). Why college men drink: Alcohol, adventure, and the paradox of masculinity. Journal of American College Health, 48, 307–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448480009596272.
Cikara, M., Eberhardt, J. L., & Fiske, S. T. (2011). From agents to objects: Sexist attitudes and neural responses to sexualized targets. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 540–551. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2010.21497.
Corcoran, K. J., & Thomas, L. R. (1991). The influence of observed alcohol consumption on perceptions of initiation of sexual activity in a college dating situation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 500–507.
Crowe, L. C., & George, W. H. (1989). Alcohol and human sexuality: Review and integration. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 374–386. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.374.
Davidson, M. M., Gervais, S. J., Canivez, G. L., & Cole, B. P. (2013). A psychometric examination of the interpersonal sexual objectification scale among college men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60, 239–250. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032075.
Davies, E. L., Lewis, E. B. C., & Hennelly, S. E. (2018). “I am quite mellow but I wouldn’t say everyone else is”: How UK students compare their drinking behaviors to their peers’. Substance Abuse, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2017.1416403.
Davis, K. C., & Logan-Greene, P. (2012). Young men’s aggressive tactics to avoid condom use: A test of a theoretical model. Social Work Research, 36, 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svs027.
Dermen, K., & Cooper, M. (1994). Sex-related alcohol expectancies among adolescents: Scale development. Psychology of Addictive Behavior, 8, 152–160.
Eagly, A. H., & Kite, M. E. (1987). Are stereotypes of nationalities applied to both men and women? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 451–462.
Fasoli, F., Paladino, M. P., Carnaghi, A., Jetten, J., Bastian, B., & Bain, P. G. (2015). Not “just words”: Exposure to homophobic epithets leads to dehumanizing physical distancing from gay men. European Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2148.
Formanowicz, M., Goldenberg, A., Saguy, T., Pietraszkiewicz, A., Walker, M., & Gross, J. (2018). Understanding dehumanization: The role of agency and communion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 77, 102–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.04.003.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.
Friedman, R. S., McCarthy, D. M., Förster, J., & Denzler, M. (2005). Automatic effects of alcohol cues on sexual attraction. Addiction, 100, 672–681. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01056.x.
Garcia, L. T., & Kushnier, K. (1987). Sexual inferences about female targets: The use of sexual experience correlates. The Journal of Sex Research, 23, 252–256.
George, W. H., Gournic, S. J., & McAfee, M. P. (1988). Perceptions of post-drinking female sexuality: Effects of gender, beverage choice, and drink payment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 1295–1316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1988.tb01208.x.
George, W. H., Cue, K. L., Lopez, P. A., Crowe, L. C., & Norris, J. (1995). Self-reported alcohol expectancies and postdrinking sexual inferences about women. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25, 164–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb01589.
George, W. H., Lehman, G. L., Cue, K. L., Martinez, L. J., Lopez, P. A., & Norris, J. (1997). Postdrinking sexual inferences: Evidence for linear rather than curvilinear dosage effects. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27, 629–648. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1997.tb00652.x.
Goff, P. A., Eberhardt, J. L., Williams, M. J., & Jackson, M. C. (2008). Not yet human: Implicit knowledge, historical dehumanization, and contemporary consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 292–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.292.
Gomberg, E. (1993). Women and alcohol: Use and abuse. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 181, 211–219.
Grubb, A., & Turner, E. (2012). Attribution of blame in rape cases: A review of the impact of rape myth acceptance, gender role conformity and substance use on victim blaming. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.06.002.
Harris, L. T., & Fiske, S. T. (2006). Dehumanizing the lowest of the low neuroimaging responses to extreme out-groups. Psychological Science, 17, 847–853. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01793.x.
Haslam, N. (2006). Dehumanization: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 252–264. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1003_4.
Haslam, N., Bain, P., Douge, L., Lee, M., & Bastian, B. (2005). More human than you: Attributing humanness to self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 937–950. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.937.
Haslam, N., Kashima, Y., Loughnan, S., Shi, J., & Suitner, C. (2008). Subhuman, inhuman, and superhuman: Contrasting humans with nonhumans in three cultures. Social Cognition, 26, 248–258. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2008.26.2.248.
Haslam, N., Loughnan, S., & Holland, E. (2013). The psychology of humanness. In S. J. Gervais (Ed.), Objectification and (de)humanization (pp. 25–51). New York: Springer.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Heflick, N. A., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2009). Objectifying Sarah Palin: Evidence that objectification causes women to be perceived as less competent and less fully human. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 598–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.02.008.
Kanin, E. J. (1984). Date rape: Unofficial criminals and victims. Victimology, 9, 95–108.
Kanny, D., Naimi, T. S., Liu, Y., Lu, H. L., & Brewer, R. D. (2018). Annual total binge drinks consumed by U.S. adults, 2015. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 54, 486–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.12.021.
Kelman, H. G. (1973). Violence without moral restraint: Reflections on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers. Journal of Social Issues, 29, 25–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1973.tb00102.x.
Kelman, H. C. (1976). Violence without restraint: Reflections on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers. In G. M. Kren & L. H. Rappoport (Eds.), Varieties of psychohistory (pp. 282–314). New York: Springer.
Koukounas, E., Djokic, J., & Miller, P. (2015). The effect of gender and alcohol placement in the processing of sexual intent. Drug and Alcohol Review, 34, 194–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.12214.
Kozee, H. B., Tylka, T. L., Augustus-Horvath, C. L., & Denchik, A. (2007). Development and psychometric evaluation of the interpersonal sexual objectification scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 176–189. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00351.x.
Landrine, H., Bardwell, S., & Dean, T. (1988). Gender expectations for alcohol use: A study of the significance of the masculine role. Sex Roles, 19, 703–712. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288986.
Leyens, J.-P., Cortes, B., Demoulin, S., Dovidio, J. F., Fiske, S. T., Gaunt, R., … Vaes, J. (2003). Emotional prejudice, essentialism, and nationalism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 704–717. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.170
Lindgren, K. P., Parkhill, M. R., George, W. H., & Hendershot, C. S. (2008). Gender differences in perception of sexual intent: A qualitative review and integration. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 423–439. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00456.x.
Loughnan, S., & Haslam, N. (2007). Animals and androids implicit associations between social categories and nonhumans. Psychological Science, 18, 116–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01858.x.
Loughnan, S., Haslam, N., Murnane, T., Vaes, J., Reynolds, C., & Suitner, C. (2010). Objectification leads to depersonalization: The denial of mind and moral concern to objectified others. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 709–717. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.755.
Loughnan, S., Pina, A., Vasquez, E. A., & Puvia, E. (2013). Sexual objectification increases rape victim blame and decreases perceived suffering. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37, 455–461. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313485718.
McCarthy, D. M., Kroll, L. S., & Smith, G. T. (2001). Integrating disinhibition and learning risk for alcohol use. Experimental Clinical Psychopharmacology, 9, 389–398.
McKenna, L., Boyle, M., Brown, T., Williams, B., Molloy, A., Lewis, B., & Molloy, L. (2012). Levels of empathy in undergraduate nursing students. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 18, 246–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-172X.2012.02035.x.
Morris, K. L., Goldenberg, J., & Boyd, P. (2018). Women as animals, women as objects: Evidence for two forms of objectification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(9), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218765739.
Nussbaum, M. C. (1995). Objectification. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 24, 249–291.
Opotow, S. (1990). Moral exclusion and injustice: An introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 46, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb00268.x.
Parks, K. A., & Scheidt, D. M. (2000). Male bar drinkers’ perspective on female bar drinkers. Sex Roles, 43, 927–941.
Puvia, E., & Vaes, J. (2013). Being a body: Women’s appearance related self-views and their dehumanization of sexually objectified female targets. Sex Roles, 68, 484–495. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0255-y.
Ricciardelli, L., Connor, J., Williams, R., & Young, R. (2001). Gender stereotypes and drinking cognitions as indicators of moderate and high risk drinking among young women and men. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 61, 129–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0376-8716(00)00131-9.
Rosenthal, L., & Lobel, M. (2016). Stereotypes of black American women related to sexuality and motherhood. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40, 414–427. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315627459.
Rudman, L. A., & Mescher, K. (2012). Of animals and objects: Men’s implicit dehumanization of women and male sexual aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 734–746.
Scully, D. (1991). Understanding sexual violence: A study of convicted rapists. Boston: Unwin Hyman.
Spencer, S. J., Zanna, M. P., & Fong, G. T. (2005). Establishing a causal chain: Why experiments are often more effective than mediational analyses in examining psychological processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 845–851. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.845.
Steele, C. M., & Josephs, R. A. (1990). Alcohol myopia: Its prized and dangerous effects. American Psychologist, 45, 921–933. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.45.8.921.
Struch, N., & Schwarz, S. H. (1989). Intergroup aggression: Its predictions and distinctness from in-group bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 364–373. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.3.364.
Vaes, J., Paladino, P., & Puvia, E. (2011). Are sexualized women complete human beings? Why men and women dehumanize sexually objectified women. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 774–785. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.824.
Viki, G., Fullerton, I., Raggett, H., Tait, F., & Wilshire, S. (2012). The role of dehumanization in attitudes toward the social exclusion and rehabilitation of sex offenders. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42, 2349–2367. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00944.x.
Viki, G. T., Osgood, D., & Phillips, S. (2013). Dehumanization and self-reported proclivity to torture prisoners of war. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 325–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.11.006.
Wiener, R. L., Gervais, S. J., Brnjic, E., & Nuss, G. D. (2014). Dehumanization of older people: The evaluation of hostile work environments. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20, 384–397. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000013.
Woodruff, K. (1996). Alcohol advertising and violence against women: A media advocacy case. Health Education and Behavior, 23, 330–345. https://doi.org/10.1177/10901981960230030.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Ellen Dudley for her assistance with data collection for Study 1. This represented a portion of her undergraduate honor’s thesis.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
All of the research reported in the manuscript complies with APA ethical standards in the treatment of human participants. The Institutional Review Board of the University at which this study was conducted approved of the study and informed consent procedures.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 1573 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Riemer, A.R., Gervais, S.J., Skorinko, J.L.M. et al. She Looks like She’d Be an Animal in Bed: Dehumanization of Drinking Women in Social Contexts. Sex Roles 80, 617–629 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0958-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0958-9