Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to examine gender differences in constructs associated with leadership aspirations in a sample of 467 undergraduate students because these might contribute to the gender gap in leadership attainment. The results demonstrated that female participants perceived themselves as having less leadership ability than male participants, and viewed their attainment of leadership roles as less likely than male participants did, which could reflect anticipated discrimination. Female participants reported less interest than male participants in elite leadership positions (e.g., CEO, senator), and associated positive characteristics with such roles less than male participants. They were also less likely than male participants to indicate a willingness to accept a promotion that would require them to sacrifice enjoyable work. Male and female participants ranked the importance of a variety of job and life attribute preferences similarly, though female participants emphasized the importance of life attribute preferences (e.g., family, good health), whereas male participants emphasized the importance of job attribute preferences (e.g., high salary). Finally, male participants were more likely than female participants to expect and prefer that they would out-earn their future spouses. These results highlight the need for greater consideration of how young women’s and men’s leadership aspirations and job/life preferences contribute to the gender gap in leadership attainment.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ashford, S. J., & DeRue, D. (2012). Developing as a leader: The power of mindful engagement. Organizational Dynamics, 41, 146–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2012.01.008.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
BarNir, A., Watson, W. E., & Hutchins, H. M. (2011). Mediation and moderated mediation in the relationship among role models, self-efficacy, entrepreneurial career intention, and gender. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41, 270–297. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00713.x.
Baroudi, S. E., Fleisher, C., Khapova, S. N., Jansen, P., & Richardson, J. (2017). Ambition at work and career satisfaction: The mediating role of taking charge behavior and the moderating role of pay. Career Development International, 22, 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-07-2016-0124.
Bartley, S. J., Blanton, P. W., & Gilliard, J. L. (2005). Husbands and wives in dual-earner marriages: Decision-making, gender role attitudes, division of household labor, and equity. Marriage & Family Review, 37, 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1300/J002v37n04_05.
Becker, J. C. (2010). Why do women endorse hostile and benevolent sexism? The role of salient female subtypes and internalization of sexist contents. Sex Roles, 62, 453–467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9707-4.
Becker-Blease, J. R., Elkinawy, S., & Stater, M. (2010). The impact of gender on voluntary and involuntary executive departure. Economic Inquiry, 48, 1102–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.2008.00186.x.
Berk, R. A., & Berk, S. F. (1983). Supply-side sociology of the family: The challenge of the new home economics. Annual Review of Sociology, 9, 375–395. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.09.080183.002111.
Betz, N. E., & Hackett, G. (1986). Applications of self-efficacy theory to understanding career choice behavior. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 279–289. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1986.4.3.279.
Bittman, M., England, P., Sayer, L., Folbre, N., & Matheson, G. (2003). When does gender trump money? Bargaining and time in household work. American Journal of Sociology, 109, 186–214. https://doi.org/10.1086/378341.
Blair, S. L., & Lichter, D. T. (1991). Measuring the division of household labor: Gender segregation of housework among American couples. Journal of Family Issues, 12, 91–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251391012001007.
Boswell, W. R. (2007). The use of communication technologies after hours: The role of work attitudes and work-life conflict. Journal of Management, 33, 592–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307302552.
Bowles, H. R., & McGinn, K. L. (2008). Untapped potential in the study of negotiation and gender inequality in organizations. Academy of Management Annals, 2, 99–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/19416520802211453.
Brown, E. R., & Diekman, A. B. (2010). What will I be? Exploring gender differences in near and distant possible selves. Sex Roles, 63, 568–579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9827-x.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2016). Labor force statistics from the Current Population Survey. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.htm.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2017). Highlights of women’s earnings in 2016. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/womens-earnings/2016/home.htm.
Bursztyn, L., Fujiwara, T., & Pallais, A. (2017). ‘Acting wife’: Marriage market incentives and labor market investments. American Economic Review, 107, 3288–3319. https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/pallais/files/acting_wife.pdf.
Cabrera, S. F., Sauer, S. J., & Thomas-Hunt, M. C. (2009). The evolving manager stereotype: The effects of industry gender typing on performance expectations for leaders and their teams. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 419–428. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01519.x.
Carlson, J. (2015). Mourning Mayberry: Guns, masculinity, and socioeconomic decline. Gender and Society, 29, 386–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243214554799.
Catalyst. (2017a). Women CEOs of the S&P 500. New York: Catalyst. Retrieved from http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/women-ceos-sp-500.
Catalyst. (2017b). Women in S&P 500 Companies. New York: Catalyst. Retrieved from http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/women-sp-500-companies.
Ceci, S. J., Ginther, D. K., Kahn, S., & Williams, W. M. (2014). Women in academic science: A changing landscape. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 15, 75–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236.
Colgan, J. D. (2016). Where is international relations going? Evidence from graduate training. International Studies Quarterly, 60, 486–498. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqv017.
Cottle, M. (2016). The era of ‘the bitch’ is coming. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/08/the-era-of-the-bitch-is-coming/496154/.
Cox, J. (2017). CEOs make 271 time the pay of most workers. CNBC Economy. Retrieved from https://www.cnbc.com/2017/07/20/ceos-make-271-times-the-pay-of-most-workers.html.
DeBenedictis, J. A. (2016). Tacking gender inequality at HBS: A case study. The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved from http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2016/5/4/tacking-gender-inequality-at-hbs/.
Dickerson, A., & Taylor, A. (2000). Self-limiting behavior in women: Self-esteem and self-efficacy as predictors. Group & Organization Management, 25, 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601100252006.
DiRenzo, M. S., Greenhaus, J. H., & Weer, C. H. (2011). Job level, demands, and resources as antecedents of work-family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 78, 305–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.10.002.
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573–598. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295X.109.3.573.
Garcia-Retamero, R., & Lopez-Zafra, E. (2006). Prejudice against women in male-congenial environments: Perceptions of gender role congruity in leadership. Sex Roles, 55, 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9068-1.
Gino, F., Wilmuth, C. A., & Brooks, A. W. (2015). Compared to men, women view professional advancement as equally attainable, but less desirable. Proceedings of the National Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1502567112.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491.
Glum, J. (2017). Higher education includes few women presidents, and their pay is lower than men’s. Newsweek. Retrieved from http://www.newsweek.com/women-college-presidents-gender-gap-581532.
Grabowski, L. J. S., Call, K. T., & Mortimer, J. T. (2001). Global and economic self-efficacy in the educational attainment process. Social Psychology Quarterly, 64, 164–179. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090131.
Gray, M. P., & O’Brien, K. M. (2007). Advancing the assessment of women’s career choices: The Career Aspiration Scale. Journal of Career Assessment, 15, 317–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072707301211.
Hochschild, A. R. (1990). The second shift: Inside the two-job marriage. New York: Morrow/Avon.
Horne, R. M., Johnson, M. D., Galambos, N. L., & Krahn, H. J. (2017). Time, money, or gender? Predictors of the division of household labour across life stages. Sex Roles. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0832-1.
Kanter, R. M. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. New York: Basic Books.
Killeen, L. A., Lopez-Zafra, E., & Eagly, A. H. (2006). Envisioning oneself as a leader: Comparisons of women and men in Spain and the United States. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 312–322. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00299.x.
Kirchmeyer, C. (2006). The different effects of family on objective career success across gender: A test of alternative explanations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 323–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2005.05.002.
Konrad, A. M., Ritchie, E., Lieb, P., & Corrigall, E. (2000). Sex differences and similarities in job attribute preferences: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126(4), 593–641. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.126.4.593.
Kossek, E. E., & Ozeki, C. (1998). Work-family conflict, policies, and the job-life satisfaction relationship: A review and directions for organizational behavior-human resources research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 139–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.83.2.139.
Lips, H. M. (2000). College students’ visions of power and possibility as moderated by gender. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 39–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01020.x.
Lips, H., & Lawson, K. (2009). Work values, gender, and expectations about work commitment and pay: Laying the groundwork for the “motherhood penalty”? Sex Roles, 61, 667–676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9670-0.
Lopez-Zafra, E., Retamero, G. R., & Eagly, A. H. (2009). Gender congruity and women’s aspirations in leadership roles. Revista de Psicologia Social, 24, 98–108. https://doi.org/10.1174/021347409786923005.
McKeen, C. A., & Bu, N. (2005). Gender roles: An examination of the hopes and expectations of the next generation of managers in Canada and China. Sex Roles, 52, 533–546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-3719-5.
Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Rudman, L. A. (2010). Disruptions in women’s self-promotion: The backlash avoidance model. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 186–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2010.01561.x.
Netchaeva, E., Kouchaki, M., & Sheppard, L. D. (2015). A man’s (precarious) place: Men’s experienced threat and self-assertive reactions to female superiors. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 1247–1259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167215593491.
Phelan, J. E., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Rudman, L. A. (2008). Competent yet out in the cold: Shifting criteria for hiring reflect backlash toward agentic women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 406–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00454.x.
Powell, G. N., & Butterfield, D. A. (1979). The “good manager”: Masculine or androgynous? Academy of Management Journal, 22, 395–403. https://doi.org/10.2307/255597.
Ray, R., Gornick, J. C., & Schmitt, J. (2008). Report: Parental leave policies in 21 countries: Assessing generosity and gender equality. Center for Economic and Policy Research. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www.lisdatacenter.org/wp-content/uploads/parent-leave-report1.pdf.
Rothbard, N. P. (2001). Enriching or depleting? The dynamics of engagement in work and family roles. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46, 655–684. https://doi.org/10.2307/3094827.
Rudman, L. A. (1998). Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 629–645. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.3.629.
Rudman, L. A., & Fairchild, K. (2004). Reactions to counterstereotypic behavior: The role of backlash in cultural stereotype maintenance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 157–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.157.
Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 743–762. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00239.
Rudman, L. A., & Heppen, J. B. (2003). Implicit romantic fantasies and women’s interest in personal power: A glass slipper effect? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1357–1370. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203256906.
Sandberg, S. (2013). Lean in: Women, work, and the will to lead. New York: Knopf.
Schein, V. E. (1973). Relationships between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57, 95–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037128.
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychological Review, 115, 336–356. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.336.
Schoon, I., & Polek, E. (2011). Pathways to economic well-being among teenage mothers in Great Britain. European Psychologist, 16, 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000028.
Shinar, E. H. (1975). Sexual stereotypes of occupations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 7, 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(75)90037-8.
Stier, H., & Lewin-Epstein, N. (2000). Women’s part-time employment and gender inequality in the family. Journal of Family Issues, 21, 390–410. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251300021003006.
Vandello, J. A., Bosson, J. K., Cohen, D., Burnaford, R. M., & Weaver, J. R. (2008). Precarious manhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1325–1339. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012453.
Williams, J. C., & Boushey, H. (2010). The three faces of work-family conflict: The poor, the professionals, and the missing middle. Center for American Progress. Retrieved from https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2010/01/25/7194/the-three-faces-of-work-family-conflict/.
Funding
No funding was received for this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
The IRB at WSU determined this research to be exempt from the requirement of IRB review.
Participants were not required to provide names and the data was viewed only by the researcher. The data is stored on the researcher’s password protected information. No identifying information is present in the dataset.
Conflicts of Interest
There are no conflicts of interest to report.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 19 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sheppard, L.D. Gender Differences in Leadership Aspirations and Job and Life Attribute Preferences among U.S. Undergraduate Students. Sex Roles 79, 565–577 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0890-4
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0890-4