Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Exonerating Effect of Sexual Objectification: Sexual Objectification Decreases Rapist Blame in a Stranger Rape Context

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A blossoming body of research documents the effect of sexual objectification on social perception, but little is known about the consequences of sexual objectification. This paper examines how sexual objectification influences men and women’s rape perceptions in case of a stranger rape. We hypothesized that victims’ sexual objectification might diminish rapist blame and increase victim blame in cases of stranger rape. Fifty-eight male and 57 female Belgian undergraduate students were assigned to either a sexual objectifying (i.e., body focus) or to a personalized portrayal (i.e., face focus) of a rape victim. After reading a newspaper report depicting a stranger rape, participants were asked to evaluate the extent to which they blamed the rapist and the victim. As predicted, participants blamed the rapist less in the sexual objectification condition, regardless of participant gender. In contrast, sexual objectification did not increase victim blame. These results have implications for the well-being of rape victims, as well as for the functioning of justice if it leads authorities to show leniency towards the length of penalty a rapist may receive. The implications of these findings for future research on sexual objectification and gender differences in rape perception are also discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrams, D., Viki, G. T., Masser, B., & Bohner, G. (2003). Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 111–125. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Archer, D., Iritani, B., Kimes, D. D., & Barrios, M. (1983). Face-ism: Five studies of sex difference in facial prominence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 725–735. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.4.725.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartky, S. L. (1990). Feminity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression. New York: Routledge.

  • Bernard, P., Gervais, S. J., Allen, J., Campomizzi, S., & Klein, O. (2012). Integrating sexual objectification with object versus person recognition: The sexualized body-inversion hypothesis. Psychological Science, 23, 469–471. doi:10.1177/0956797611434748.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernard, P., Gervais, S. J., Allen, J., Campomizzi, S., & Klein, O. (2015a). Body parts reduction and self-objectification in the objectification of sexualized bodies. International Review of Social Psychology / Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 28.

  • Bernard, P., Gervais, S. J., Allen, J., Delmée, A., & Klein, O. (2015b). From sex objects to human beings: Masking sexual body parts and humanization as moderators to women’s objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0361684315580125.

  • Bernard, P., Gervais, S. J., Allen, J., & Klein, O. (2013). Perceptual determinants are critical, but they don’t explain everything: A response to Tarr. Psychological Science, 24, 1071–1073. doi:10.1177/0956797612474672.

  • Brandt, M. J. (2011). Sexism and gender inequality across 57 societies. Psychological Science, 22, 1413–1418. doi:10.1177/0956797611420445.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cikara, M., Eberhardt, J. L., & Fiske, S. T. (2010). From agents to objects: Sexist attitudes and neural responses to sexualized targets. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 540–551. doi:10.1162/jocn.2010.21497.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, E. S., Dupuis, E. C., & Brown, T. M. (2009). In the eye of the beholder: Do behavior and character affect victim and perpetrator responsibility for acquaintance rape? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39, 1513–1535. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00493.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gervais, S. J., Vescio, T. K., Maass, A., Förster, J., & Suitner, C. (2012). Seeing women as objects: The sexual body part recognition bias. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 743–753. doi:10.1002/ejsp.1890.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gervais, S. J., Bernard, P., Allen, J., & Klein, O. (2013a). Toward a unified theory of objectification and dehumanization. In S. J. Gervais (Ed.), 60th Nebraska symposium on motivation: Objectification and (de)humanization (pp. 1–23). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6959-9_1.

  • Gervais, S. J., Holland, A. M., & Dodd, M. D. (2013b). My eyes are up here: The nature of the objectifying gaze toward women. Sex Roles, 69, 557–570. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0316-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., … López, W. L. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763–775. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.763.

  • Gray, K., & Wegner, D. (2009). Moral typecasting: Divergent perception of moral agents and moral patients. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 505–520. doi:10.1037/a0013748.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, K., & Wegner, D. (2011). To escape blame, don’t be a hero - be a victim. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 516–519. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, K., Knobe, J., Sheskin, M., Bloom, P., & Barrett, L. F. (2011). More than a body: Mind perception and the nature of objectification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 1207–1220. doi:10.1037/a0025883.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grubb, A., & Harrower, J. (2008). Attribution of blame in cases of rape: An analysis of participant gender, type of rape and perceived similarity to the victim. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13, 395–405. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2008.06.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grubb, A., & Harrower, J. (2009). Understanding attribution of blame in cases of rape: An analysis of participant gender, type of rape and perceived similarity to the victim. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 15, 63–81. doi:10.1080/13552600802641649.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurung, R., & Chrouser, C. (2007). Predicting objectification: Do provocative clothing and observer characteristics matter? Sex Roles, 57, 91–99. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9219-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harbridge, J., & Furnham, A. (1991). Lay theories of rape. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 4, 3–25. doi:10.1080/09515079108254425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, G. A., & Olson, J. M. (2006). Coping on threats to just-world beliefs: Derogate, blame or help? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 664–682. doi:10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00023.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heflick, N. A., & Goldenberg, J. (2009). Objectifying Sarah Palin: Evidence that objectification causes women to be perceived as less competent and less fully human. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 598–601. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.02.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heflick, N. A., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2014). Seeing eye to body: The literal objectification of women. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 225–229. doi:10.1177/0963721414531599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heflick, N. A., Goldenberg, J. L., Cooper, D. P., & Puvia, E. (2011). From women to objects: Appearance focus, target gender, and perceptions of warmth, morality and competence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 572–581. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Human Development Reports. (2015). International human development indicators. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table4-gender-inequality-index.

  • Kahn, A. S., Rodgers, K. A., Martin, C., Malick, K., Claytor, J., Gandolfo, M., & Webne, E. (2011). Gender versus gender role in attributions of blame for a sexual assault. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41, 239–251. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00711.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, P. (1999). The handbook of psychological testing (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krahé, B. (1985). Verantwortungszuschreibungen in der sozialen Eindrucksbildung uber Vergewaltigungsopfer und 7-ter. Zur Replikation einiger amerikanischer Ergebnisse an einer deutschen Stichprobe. [Attribution of responsibility in impression formation about rape victims. Replication of US results in a German sample]. Gruppendynamik, 16, 169–178.

  • Krahé, B. (1988). Victim and observer characteristics as determinants of responsibility attributions to victims of rape. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 50–58. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1988.tb00004.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lance, C. E., Butts, M. M., & Michels, L. C. (2006). The sources of four commonly reported cutoff criteria: What did they really say? Organizational Research Methods, 19, 202–220. doi:10.1177/1094428105284919.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, M. J. (1980). The belief in a just world. A fundamental delusion. New York: Plenum.

  • Loughnan, S., Haslam, N., Murnane, T., Vaes, J., Reynolds, C., & Suitner, C. (2010). Objectification leads to depersonalization: The denial of mind and moral concern to objectified others. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 709–717. doi:10.1002/ejsp.755.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loughnan, S., Pina, A., Vasquez, E. A., & Puvia, E. (2013). Sexual objectification increases rape victim blame and decreases perceived suffering. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37, 455–461. doi:10.1177/0361684313485718.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loughnan, S., Fernandez, S., Vaes, S., Anjum, G., Aziz, M., Harada, C., Tsuchiya, K. (2015). Exploring the role of culture in sexual objectification: A seven nations study. International Review of Social Psychology / Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 28.

  • Marwick, A. (1998). The sixties. Cultural revolution in Britain, France, Italy and the United States. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, M. (2011a). Rape victim ‘inviting’, so no jail. Judge rules woman’s clothes, conduct ease blame on attacker. Winnipeg Free Press. Retrieved from http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/breakingnews/rape-victim-inviting-so-no-jail--rape-victim-inviting-so-no-jail-116801578.html.

  • McIntyre, M. (2011b). ‘No woman asks to be raped’: Victim slams judge’s decision. National Post. Retrieved from http://news.nationalpost.com/2011/02/25/no-woman-asks-to-be-raped-victim-slams-judges-decision/#more-49309.

  • Rosenblum, N. (1997). Democratic sex: Reynolds v. US, sexual relations, and community. In D. Estlund & M. Nussbaum (Eds.), Sex, preference, and family (pp. 63–85). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, L., & Hooghe, M. (2003). The swing of the pendulum: The detraditionalisation of the regulation of sexuality and intimacy in Belgium (1973–2003). International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 31, 131–151. doi:10.1016/j.ijsl.2003.04.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. (2015). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved from www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Crime-statistics/Sexual_violence_sv_against_children_and_rape.xls.

  • Vaes, J., Paladino, M. P., & Puvia, E. (2011). Are sexualized females complete human beings? Why males and females dehumanize sexually objectified women. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 774–785. doi:10.1002/ejsp.824.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Bruggen, M., & Grubb, A. (2014). A review of the literature relating to rape victim blaming: An analysis of the impact of observer and victim characteristics on attribution of blame in rape cases. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19, 523–531. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2014.07.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vandewege, R., Bruynooghe, R., & Opdebeek, S. (1988). Les femmes confrontées à la violence physique et sexuelle—Prédominance et conséquences. [Women suffering from physical and sexual violence—Predominance and consequences]. Rapport destiné à la Secrétaire d’Etat à l’Environnement et à l’Emancipation sociale, Bruxelles.

  • Viki, G. T., Abrams, D., & Masser, B. (2004). Evaluating stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent sexism in perpetrator blame and recommended sentence length. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 295–303. doi:10.1023/B:LAHU.0000029140.72880.69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waites, M. (2001). Regulation of sexuality: Age of consent, section 28 and sex education. Parliamentary Affairs, 54, 495–508. doi:10.1093/parlij/54.3.495.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whatley, M. A. (1996). Victim characteristics influencing attributions of responsibility to rape victims: A meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1, 81–95. doi:10.1016/1359-1789(95)00011-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Workman, J. E., & Freeburg, E. W. (1999). An examination of date rape, victim dress, and perceiver variables within the context of attribution theory. Sex Roles, 41, 261–277. doi:10.1023/a:1018858313267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamawaki, N. (2007). Rape perception and the function of ambivalent sexism and gender-role traditionality. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 406–423. doi:10.1177/0886260506297210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamawaki, N., Darby, R., & Queiroz, A. (2007). The moderating role of ambivalent sexism: The influence of power status on perception of rape victim and rapist. The Journal of Social Psychology, 147, 41–56. doi:10.3200/socp.147.1.41-56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the National Fund for Scientific Research (FRS-FNRS, Belgium) and by the Fonds d’Encouragement à la Recherche (Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium).

Ethical standards

My coauthors and I do not have any interest that might be interpreted as influencing the research. Applicable ethical standards, specifically the APA standards, were followed in the conduct of the study. The rights of the human subjects participating in our research were protected.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Social and Cultural Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, CP 122, Avenue F. Roosevelt, 50, 1050, Brussels, Belgium

    Philippe Bernard, Cynthie Marchal, Audrey Godart & Olivier Klein

  2. School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

    Steve Loughnan

Authors
  1. Philippe Bernard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Steve Loughnan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Cynthie Marchal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Audrey Godart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Olivier Klein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Philippe Bernard.

Appendices

Appendix 1

Scenario (translated from French).

The famous model Sophie Dialle has been brutally attacked and raped on the night of Monday, March 7. The Brussels police arrested a suspect a few hours after the assault.

After the banquet in honor of the official launch of a new lingerie brand, Lilla©, Sophie Dialle was driven at her home by her chauffeur. Around 11 PM, her best friend invited her to a drink at her apartment located a few blocks away. She agreed and decided to walk. During her journey, the young woman was accosted by a 30 year old stranger who proposed to drive her to her destination. Sophie Dialle, who was suspicious, refused. The man insisted and became threatening. For the victim, it was too late. She was taken away by the stranger in a deserted and weakly lighted up alley. Her attempts to struggle were futile, the man kept her on the ground and raped her. An ordeal that lasted an eternity for the young model. In shock, Sophie Dialle nevertheless managed to call the police, which arrived quickly on the scene. She received psychological help from the police to give evidence. This morning, the spokesman for the police announced that it had arrested a suspect—a man named Loïc Dubois. The latter matches with the photofit and “has no serious alibi”. The suspect has been indicted by the prosecutor. Loïc Dubois’s trial is scheduled to begin in less than 6 months. As for Sophie Dialle, she said she would return to photo shoots as soon as possible.

[Text below the picture: Sophie Dialle has recently posed for Lillas©, a new lingerie brand. Despite her state of shock, the famous model claimed that she will honor the contracts that she signed lately.]

Appendix 2: French Version of the Scales

B1. Victim Blame, adapted from Abrams et al. (2003)

  1. 1.

    How much do you think Sophie should blame herself for what happened? / Dans quelle mesure pensez-vous que Sophie devrait se sentir responsable de ce qui s’est passé?

  2. 2.

    How much control do you think Sophie had over the situation? / Dans quelle mesure pensez-vous que Sophie avait un contrôle sur la situation?

  3. 3.

    How much do you agree Sophie should not have walked after the sunset if she did not want to have problems / Dans quelle mesure pensez-vous que Sophie n’aurait pas dû marcher dans la rue lorsque la nuit est tombée si elle ne voulait pas avoir de “problèmes”?

  4. 4.

    Do you think this incident could have been avoided by Sophie / Pensez-vous que l’événement aurait pu être évité par Sophie?

  5. 5.

    How much do you think that Sophie is responsible for the way things turned out? / Dans quelle mesure pensez-vous que Sophie est responsable de la façon dont les choses ont tourné?

  6. 6.

    How much sympathy do you feel for Sophie / Dans quelle mesure ressentez-vous de la sympathie pour Sophie?

B2. Rapist Blame, adapted from Abrams et al. (2003)

  1. 1.

    How much do you think Loïc should blame himself for what happened? / Dans quelle mesure pensez-vous que Loïc devrait se sentir responsable de ce qui s’est passé?

  2. 2.

    How much control do you think Loïc had over the situation? / Dans quelle mesure pensez-vous que Loïc avait un contrôle sur la situation?

  3. 3.

    Do you think this incident could have been avoided by Loïc / Pensez-vous que l’événement aurait pu être évité par Loïc?

  4. 4.

    How much do you think that Loïc is responsible for the way things turned out? / Dans quelle mesure pensez-vous que Loïc est responsable de la façon dont les choses ont tourné?

  5. 5.

    How much sympathy do you feel for Loïc? Dans quelle mesure ressentez-vous de la sympathie pour Loïc?

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Bernard, P., Loughnan, S., Marchal, C. et al. The Exonerating Effect of Sexual Objectification: Sexual Objectification Decreases Rapist Blame in a Stranger Rape Context. Sex Roles 72, 499–508 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0482-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0482-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation