Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Role of Masculinity/Femininity, Values, and Occupational Value Affordances in Shaping Young Men’s and Women’s Occupational Choices

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Gender differences in occupational values have been well-established, yet little research has examined the predictive qualities of individual difference variables such as self-perceived masculinity/femininity on values and these constructs’ predictive role in the traditionality and perceived value affordances of future occupations—or the values persons expect a job to fulfill. Undergraduates (185 males, 401 females) from the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States reported their occupational values, self-perceived masculinity/femininity, expected occupations, and the perceived value affordances of these jobs. Results indicated significant relationships among self-perceived masculinity/femininity, value endorsements, and the perceptions of value affordances. Results also indicated some differences among the three subsamples as well as gender differences across subsamples. Also, value endorsements mediated the relationships between self-perceived masculinity/femininity and traditionality and self-perceived masculinity/femininity and perceived value affordances. Thus, the values associated with jobs and personal value endorsements are important variables in career choice. The implications of these findings are discussed, and it is suggested that perceptions of occupational value affordances may be an entry point for intervention when trying to reduce occupational gender segregation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abu-Saad, I., & Isralowitz, R. E. (1997). Gender as a determinant of work values among university students in Israel. The Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 749–763. doi:10.1080/00224549709595496.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ayman, R., Korabik, K., & Morris, S. (2009). Is transformational leadership always perceived as effective? Male subordinates’ devaluation of female transformational leaders. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39, 852–879. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00463.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R., & Kenny, D. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162. doi:10.1037/h0036215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bereska, T. (2003). The changing boys’ world in the 20th century: Reality and ‘fiction’. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 11, 157–174. doi:10.3149/jms.1102.157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bridges, J. (1989). Sex differences in occupational values. Sex Roles, 20, 205–211. doi:10.1007/BF00287992.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, D. (2002). The role of work and cultural values in occupational choice, satisfaction, and success: A theoretical statement. Journal of Counseling & Development, 80, 48–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M. T., Eisenberg, A. I., & Sawilowsky, S. S. (1997). Traditionality and the discriminating effect of expectations of occupational success and occupational values for women within math-oriented fields. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 418–431. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1996.1545.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2005). Household Data Annual Averages. Table 11: Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic origin. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.pdf

  • Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2011). Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.pdf.

  • Cejka, M. A., & Eagly, A. H. (1999). Gender-stereotypic images of occupations correspond to the sex segregation of employment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 413–423. doi:10.1177/0146167299025004002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, N., & Fuqua, D. F. (2003). The structure of the bem sex role inventory: A summary report of 23 validation studies. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63, 872–887. doi:10.1177/0013164403258235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diekman, A., & Eagly, A. (2000). Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1171–1188. doi:10.1177/0146167200262001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duffy, R. D., Borges, N. J., & Hartung, P. J. (2009). Personality, vocational interests, and work values of medical students. Journal of Career Assessment, 17, 189–200. doi:10.1177/1069072708329035.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S. (1994). Understanding women’s educational and occupational choices: Applying the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 585–609. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb01049.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J., Barber, B., & Jozefowicz, D. (1999). Linking gender to educational, occupational, and recreational choices: Applying the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In W. B. Swann, J. H. Langlois, & L. A. Gilbert (Eds.), Sexism and stereotypes in modern society: The gender science of Janet Taylor Spence (pp. 153–192). Washington: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10277-007.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., et al. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). San Francisco: W. H. Freemen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elizur, D. (1994). Gender and work values: A comparative analysis. Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 201–212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frieze, I. H., Olson, J. E., Murrell, A. J., & Selvan, M. S. (2006). Work values and their effect on work behavior and work outcomes in female and male managers. Sex Roles, 54, 83–93. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-8871-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frome, P., Alfeld, C., Eccles, J., & Barber, B. (2008). Is the desire for a family-flexible job keeping young women out of male-dominated occupations? In H. M. G. Watt & J. S. Eccles (Eds.), Gender and occupational outcomes: Longitudinal assessments of individual, social, and cultural influences (pp. 195–214). Washington: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/11706-007.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Good, G., & Sherrod, N. (2004). The psychology of men and masculinity: Research status and future directions. In R. Unger (Ed.), Handbook of the psychology of women and gender (pp. 201–214). Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottfredson, L. S. (1981). Circumscription and compromise: A developmental theory of occupational aspirations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 545–579. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.28.6.545.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, A. C. (1996). African American and Anglo-American gender identities: An empirical study. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 182–194. doi:10.1177/00957984960222004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harton, H. C., & Lyons, P. C. (2003). Gender, empathy, and the choice of the psychology major. Teaching of Psychology, 30, 19–24. doi:10.1207/S15328023TOP3001_03.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartung, P. J., Fouad, N. A., Leong, F. L., & Hardin, E. E. (2010). Individualism-collectivism: Links to occupational plans and work values. Journal of Career Assessment, 18, 34–45. doi:10.1177/1069072709340526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76, 408–420. doi:10.1080/03637750903310360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holland, J. (1959). A theory of vocational choice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 6, 35–45. doi:10.1037/h0040767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konrad, A. M., Ritchie, J. E., Lieb, P., & Corrigall, E. (2000). Sex differences and similarities in job attribute preferences: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 593–641. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.4.593.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leaper, C., & Van, S. R. (2008). Masculinity ideology, covert sexism, and perceived gender typicality in relation to young men’s academic motivation and choices in college. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 9, 139–153. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.9.3.139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C. C. (1984). Work values of rural Black, White, and Native American adolescents: Implications for contemporary rural school counselors. Counseling and Values, 28, 63–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2002). The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67, (2, Serial No. 269). doi: 10.1111/1540-5834.t01-1-00187

  • Lips, H. M. (2003). The gender pay gap: Concrete indicator of women’s progress toward equality. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 3, 87–109. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2003.00016.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lips, H., & Lawson, K. (2009). Work values, gender, and expectations about work commitment and pay: Laying the groundwork for the “motherhood penalty”? Sex Roles, 61, 667–676. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9670-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lueptow, L., Garovich-Szabo, L., & Lueptow, M. (2001). Social change and the persistence of sex typing: 1974–1997. Social Forces, 80, 1–36. doi:10.1353/sof.2001.0077.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marini, M. M., Fan, P., Finley, E., & Beutel, A. M. (1996). Gender and job values. Sociology of Education, 69, 49–65. doi:10.2307/2112723.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, M., & Goulden, M. (2004). Marriage and baby blues: Redefining gender equity in the academy. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 596, 86–103. doi:10.1177/0002716204268744.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, C., Isaac, J. D., & Sansone, C. (2001). The role of interest in understanding the career choices of female and male college students. Sex Roles, 44, 295–320. doi:10.1023/A:1010929600004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mortimer, J. T., & Lorence, J. (1979). Work experience and occupational value socialization: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 1361–1385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Education Statistics (2009). Bachelor’s degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by sex, race/ethnicity, and field of study: 2007–08. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d09/tables/dt09_286.asp.

  • Ng, E. W., & Sears, G. J. (2010). What women and ethnic minorities want. Work values and labor market confidence: A self-determination perspective. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21, 676–698. doi:10.1080/09585191003658847.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pion, G. M., Mednick, M. T., Astin, H. S., Hall, C. C., Kenkel, M. B., Keita, G. P., et al. (1996). The shifting gender composition of psychology: Trends and implications for the discipline. American Psychologist, 51, 509–528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Risman, B., & Johnson-Sumerford, D. (1998). Doing it fairly: A study of postgender marriages. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 60, 23–40. doi:10.2307/353439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ritter, D. (2004). Gender role orientation and performance on stereotypically feminine and masculine cognitive tasks. Sex Roles, 50, 583–591. doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000023077.91248.f7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, J., Shaver, P., Wrightsman, L., & Andrews, F. M. (1991). Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1957). Occupations and values. Glencoe: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rounds, J., Armstrong, P. I., Liao, H., Lewis, P., & Rivkin, D. (2008). Second Generation Occupational Interest Profiles for the O*NET System. Technical Report for the U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from http://www.onetcenter.org/dl_files/SecondOIP_Summary.pdf

  • Sobel, M. E. (1982). Direct and indirect effects in linear structural equation models. Sociological Methods and Research, 16, 155–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T. (1984). Gender identity and implications for concepts of masculinity and femininity. In T. B. Sonderegger (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Psychology and gender (pp. 59–96). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

  • Super, D. E. (1957). The psychology of careers. New York: Harper.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tokar, D. M., & Jome, L. M. (1998). Masculinity, vocational interests, and career choice traditionality: Evidence for a fully mediated model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 424–435. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.45.4.424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weisgram, E. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2006). Girls and science careers: The role of altruistic values and attitudes about specific tasks. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 326–348. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2006.04.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weisgram, E. S., Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2010). Gender, values, and occupational interests among children, adolescents, and adults. Child Development, 81, 778–796. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01433.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J., & Best, D. (1990). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multination study (Rev. ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, W., & Eagly, A. (2002). A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 699–727. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.5.699.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

This study was funded, in part, by Monmouth University’s Grant in Aid of Creativity. The authors would like to thank Ryan Laswell, Sara Rae, Lauren Kaniewski, and Amanda Grunwald of UWSP, Deanna Stango (graduate) and Brittney Austin, Erin Barrett, Jenna DeLozier, Lina Jaramillo, and Maria Mereos (undergraduates) of Monmouth University; and for their assistance in collecting and entering the data and bibliographic assistance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, 2100 Main St., Stevens Point, WI, 54481, USA

    Erica S. Weisgram

  2. Department of Psychology, Monmouth University, 400 Cedar Avenue, West Long Branch, NJ, 07764, USA

    Lisa M. Dinella

  3. Department of Psychology, Washington and Lee University, 230 Parmly Hall, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA

    Megan Fulcher

Authors
  1. Erica S. Weisgram
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lisa M. Dinella
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Megan Fulcher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Erica S. Weisgram.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Weisgram, E.S., Dinella, L.M. & Fulcher, M. The Role of Masculinity/Femininity, Values, and Occupational Value Affordances in Shaping Young Men’s and Women’s Occupational Choices. Sex Roles 65, 243–258 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9998-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9998-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation