Abstract
Within this concluding commentary, three important gender-stalking intersections that emerge across the papers included in this special issue are explicated. First, we consider the degree to which existing measures and definitions of stalking are gender sensitive toward both men and women. Second, gender roles and gender socialization scripts are shown to impact our understanding of, perceptions about, and the impacts associated with stalking-like behaviors for both genders. Third, the intersection of gender and developing theories of stalking is considered. Finally, it is argued that future stalking researchers will need to be sensitive to changing cultural norms about gender, relationships, technology, and privacy as these are likely to alter the prevalence, perceptions, and prosecution of stalking within the United States and across the world.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 651–680. doi:10.1037/033-2909.126.5.651.
Basile, K. C., & Hall, J. E. (2011). Intimate partner violence perpetration by court-ordered men: Distinctions and intersections among physical violence, sexual violence, psychological abuse, and stalking. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 230–253. doi:10.1177/0886260510362896.
Baum, K., Catalano, S., Rand, M., & Rose, K. (2009). Stalking victimization in the United States (NCJ Report 224527). Washington DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F., & Tice, D. M. (1994). Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation. San Diego: Academic.
Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2007). Self-regulation, ego depletion, and motivation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1(1–14), 115–128. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00001.x.
Bijou, S. W. (1957). Patterns of reinforcement and resistance to extinction in young children. Child Development, 28, 47–54.
Björklund, K., Häkkänen-Nyholm, H., Sheridan, L., & Roberts, K. (2010a). Coping with stalking among university students. Violence and Victims, 25, 395–408. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.25.3.395.
Björklund, K., Häkkänen-Nyholm, H., Sheridan, L., & Roberts, K. (2010b). The prevalence of stalking among Finnish university students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 684–698. doi:10.1177/0886260509334405.
Buhi, E. R., Clayton, H., & Surrency, H. H. (2009). Stalking victimization among college women and subsequent help-seeking behaviors. Journal of American College Health, 57, 419–425. doi:10.3200/JACH.57.4.419-426.
Cass, A. I. (2011). Defining stalking: The influence of legal factors, extralegal factors, and particular actions of judgments of college students. Western Criminology Review, 12, 1–14.
Cass, A. I., & Rosay, A. B. (2011). College student perceptions of criminal justice responses to stalking. Sex Roles, this issue. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9934-3.
Cupach, W. R., & Spitzberg, B. H. (1998). Obsessional relational intrusion and stalking. In W. R. Cupach & B. H. Spitzberg (Eds.), The dark side of close relationships (pp. 233–264). Mahwah: LEA.
Davis, K. E., & Frieze, I. H. (2002). Research on stalking: What do we know and where do we go? In K. E. Davis, I. H. Frieze, & R. D. Maiuro (Eds.), Stalking: Perspectives on victims and perpetrators (pp. 353–375). New York: Springer.
Davis, K. E., Swan, S. C., & Gambone, L. J. (2010). Why doesn’t he just leave me alone? Persistent pursuit: A critical review of theories and evidence. Sex Roles, this issue doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9882-3.
Dennison, S. M. (2007). Interpersonal relationships and stalking: Identifying when to intervene. Law and Human Behavior, 31, 353–367. doi:10.1007/s10979-006-9067-3.
Dobash, R. P., Dobash, R., Wilson, M., & Daly, M. (1992). The myth of sexual symmetry in marital violence. Social Problems, 39, 71–91. doi:10.1525/sp.1992.39.1.03x0064l.
Dunlap, E. E., Hodell, E. C., Golding, J. M., & Wasarhaley, N. E. (2011). Mock jurors’ perception of stalking: The impact of gender and expressed fear. Sex Roles, this issue. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9970-z.
Duntley, J. D., & Buss, D. M. (2010). The evolution of stalking. Sex Roles, this issue. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9832-0.
Dutton, L. B., & Winstead, B. A. (2010). Types, frequency, and effectiveness of responses to unwanted pursuit and stalking. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 1129–1156. doi:1177/0886260510368153.
Ewing, M. (Producer), & Segal, P. (Director). (2004). Fifty First Dates. [Motion picture]. United States: Sony Pictures.
Frieze, I. (2008). Understanding what it is like to be stalked. [Review of the book Partner Stalking: How women respond, cope, and survive by T. K. Logan, J. Cole, L. Shannon, & R. Walker]. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 105. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00411_1.x.
Gibbons, J. L., Stiles, D. A., & Shkodriani, G. M. (1991). Adolescents’ attitudes toward family and gender roles: An international comparison. Sex Roles, 25, 625–643. doi:10.1007/BF00289568.
Johnson, M. P., & Ferraro, K. J. (2000). Research on domestic violence in the 1990s: Making distinctions. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 948–963. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00948.x.
Johnson, M. C., & Kercher, G. A. (2009). Identifying predictors of negative psychological reactions to stalking victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 866–882. doi:10.1177/0886260508317195.
Kumpfer, K. L. (1998). Selective prevention intervention: The strengthening families program. In R. S. Ashery, E. E. Robertson, & K. L. Kumpfer (Eds.), Drug abuse prevention through family intervention. NIDA Research Monograph Series No. 177: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (Pub. No. 99–4135).
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2005). Top ten greatest “hits”: Important findings and future directions for interpersonal violence research. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 108–118. doi:10.1177/0886260504268602.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2010). Controversies involving gender and intimate partner violence in the United States. Sex Roles, 62, 179–193. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9628-2.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., Palarea, R. E., Cohen, J., & Rohling, M. L. (2002). Breaking up is hard to do: Unwanted pursuit behaviors following the dissolution of a romantic relationship. In K. E. Davis, I. H. Frieze, & R. D. Maiuro (Eds.), Stalking: Perspectives on victims and perpetrators (pp. 212–236). New York: Springer. doi:10.1177/0886260504268602.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., & Rohling, M. L. (2000). Negative family-of-origin experiences: Are they associated with perpetrating unwanted pursuit behaviors? Violence and Victims, 15, 459–471.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., & Taylor, J. (2003). After the breakup: Relationship factors associated with intimate relationship stalking. In M. P. Brewster (Ed.), Stalking: Psychology, risk factors, interventions, and law (pp. 8–1–8–13). Kingston: Civic Research Institute.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., & Turner, L. A. (2011). The efficacy of an intimate partner violence prevention program with high-risk adolescent girls: A preliminary test. Prevention Science. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s11121-011-0240-7.
Logan, T. K., & Walker, R. (2010). Toward a deeper understanding of the harms caused by partner stalking. Violence and Victims, 25, 440–455. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.25.4.440.
McCutcheon, L. E., Scott, V., Aruguete, M. S., & Parker, J. (2006). Exploring the link between attachment and the inclination to obsess about or stalk celebrities. North American Journal of Psychology, 8, 289–300.
McEwan, T., Mullen, P. E., & Purcell, R. (2007). Identifying risk factors in stalking: A review of current research. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 30, 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2006.03.005.
Melton, H. C. (2007). Predicting the occurrence of stalking in relationships characterized by domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 3–25. doi:10.1177/0886260506294994.
Mumm, S. S., & Cupach, W. R. (2010). Turning points in the progression of obsessive relational intrusion and stalking. Violence and Victims, 25, 707–727. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.25.6.707.
Norris, S. M., Huss, M. T., & Palarea, R. E. (2011). A pattern of violence: Analyzing the relationship between intimate partner violence and stalking. Violence and Victims, 26, 103–115. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.26.1.103.
Palarea, R., Zona, M., Lane, J., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (1999). The dangerous nature of intimate relationship stalking: Threats, violence, and associated risk factors. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 17, 269–283. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199907/09)17:3< 269::AID-BSL346>3.0.CO;2-6.
Patton, C. L., Nobles, M. R., & Fox, K. A. (2010). Look who’s stalking: Obsessive pursuit and attachment theory. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 282–290. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.02.013.
Phillips, L., Quirk, R., Rosenfeld, B., & O’Connor, M. (2004). Is it stalking?: Perceptions of stalking among college undergraduates. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31, 73–96. doi:10.1177/0093854803259251.
Schafer, J. A., Huebner, B. M., & Bynum, T. S. (2006). Fear of crime and criminal victimization: Gender-based contrasts. Journal of Criminal Justice, 34, 285–301. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.03.003.
Schlesinger, L. B. (2006). Celebrity stalking, homicide, and suicide: A psychological autopsy. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 50(1), 39–46. doi:10.1177/0306624X05276461.
Scott, H. (2003). Stranger danger: Explaining women’s fear of crime. Western Criminology Review, 4, 203–214.
Scott, A. J., Lloyd, R., & Gavin, J. (2010). The influence of prior relationship on perceptions of stalking in the United Kingdom and Australia. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37, 1185–1194. doi:10.1177/0093854810378812.
Sheridan, L., & Lyndon, A. E. (2010). The influence of prior relationship, gender, and fear on the consequences of stalking victimization. Sex Roles, this issue. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9889-9.
Sinclair, H. C. (2010). Stalking myth-attributions: Examining the role of individual and contextual variables on attributions in unwanted pursuit scenarios. Sex Roles, this issue. doi:10.1007/s11199-101-9853-8.
Sinclair, H. C., & Frieze, I. H. (2000). Initial courtship behavior and stalking: How should we draw the line? Violence and Victims, 15, 23–40.
Skalias, L., & Davis, B. (1994). Stalked: A true story. Arlington: Summit.
Smith, W. R., & Torstensson, M. (1997). Gender differences in risk perception and neutralizing fear of crime. British Journal of Criminology, 37, 608–634.
Spitzberg, B. H., & Cadiz, M. (2002). The media construction of stalking stereotypes. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 9, 128–149.
Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (2003). What mad pursuit? Obsessive relational intrusion and stalking related phenomena. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 8, 345–375. doi:10.1016/S1359-1789(02)00068-X.
Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (2007). The state of the art on stalking: Taking stock of the emerging literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12, 64–86. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2006.05.001.
Spitzberg, B. H., Cupach, W. R., & Ciceraro, L. D. L. (2010). Sex differences in stalking and obsessive relational intrusion: two meta-analyses. Partner Abuse, 1, 259–285, this issue. doi:10.1891/1946&U8211;6560.1.3.259.
Stark, E. (2007). Coercive control: How men entrap women in personal life. Interpersonal violence. New York: Oxford University Press.
Thompson, C. M., Dennison, S. M., & Stewart, A. (2010). Are female stalkers more violent than male stalkers? Understanding gender differences in stalking violence using contemporary sociocultural beliefs. Sex Roles, this issue. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9911-2.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (1998). Stalking in America: Findings from the national violence against women survey (Report No. NCJ 169592). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Prevalence and consequences of male-to-female and female-to-male intimate partner violence as measured by the national violence against women survey. Violence Against Women, 6, 142–161. doi:10.1177/10778010022181769.
Tompkins, C., & Kear, J. (2006). Before He Cheats [Recorded by Carrie Underwood]. On Some Hearts [CD]. Arista: Nashville, Tennessee.
Turner, L., Powell, A., Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., & Carson, J. (2009). Helping families initiative: Intervening with high-risk students through a community, school, and juvenile justice partnership. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 26, 209–223. doi:10.1007/s10560-009-0167-z.
White, J. (2009). A gendered approach to adolescent dating violence: Conceptual and methodological issues. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 1–15. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.01467.x.
Yanowitz, K. L., & Yanowitz, J. L. (2010). The role of gender in the generation of stalking scripts. Sex Roles, this issue. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9867-2.
Zona, M., Sharma, K., & Lane, J. (1993). A comparative study of erotomanic and obsessional subjects in a forensic sample. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 38, 894–903.
Acknowledgements
This commentary benefited substantially from the careful review process undertaken by Sex Roles. I am also grateful to the fantastic editorial and organizational assistance of Dr. Brenda Beverly, University of South Alabama.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. Gender and Stalking: Current Intersections and Future Directions. Sex Roles 66, 418–426 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0093-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0093-3