Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Efficacy of All-Male Academies: Insights from Critical Race Theory (CRT)

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper presents Critical Race Theory (CRT) as a theoretical framework for understanding the growing interest in establishing single-gender schools and classrooms for African American males in the United States. From a legal perspective, CRT proponents contend that single-gender education offers African Americans a viable strategy for addressing and reversing the systemic and cultural forces that limit the academic achievement, educational attainment and destinies of African American males. Both potential benefits and problematic aspects of single-gender education as a timely reform strategy to raise academic achievement and improve the lives and futures of African American males are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Civil Liberties Union (2008). Talking points: The School-to-prison pipeline. Retrieved from http://www.aclu.org/files/assests/stpp_talkingpoints.pdf.

  • Akbar, N. (1998). Know thyself. Tallahassee: Mind Productions.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Association of University Women. (1998). Separated by sex: A critical look at single-sex education for girls. Washington: AAUW.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aird, E. G. (2008). Toward a renaissance for the African-American family: Confronting the lie of Black inferiority. Emory Law Journal, 58, 7–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the streets: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, D. (1992). Faces at the bottom of the well: The permanence of racism. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowman, P., & Howard, C. (1995). Race related socialization, motivation, and academic achievement: A study of Black youths in three-generation families. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 134–141. doi:10.1016/S0002-7138(09)60438-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bush’s backing of all-male schools is criticized (1991, September 11). The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/11/education/bush-s-backing-of-all-male-schools-is-criticized.html.

  • Cokley, K. O. (2002a). Ethnicity, gender, and academic self-concept: A preliminary examination and academic disidentification and implications for psychologists. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 378–388. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.8.4.379.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cokley, K. O. (2002b). Testing Cross’s revised racial identity model: An examination of the relationship between racial identity and internalized racism. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 476–483. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.49.4.476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colley, A., Comber, C., & Hargreaves, D. J. (1994). School subject preferences of pupils in single-sex and co-educational secondary schools. Educational Studies, 20, 379–385. doi:10.1080/0305569940200306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, P. J., & Ludwig, J. (1998). The burden of “acting white”: Do Black adolescents disparage academic achievement. In C. Jencks & M. M. Phillips (Eds.), The black-white test score gap (pp. 375–400). Washington: Brookings Institution.

    Google Scholar 

  • Council of the Great City Schools. (2010). A call for change: The social and educational factors contributing to the outcomes of Black males in urban schools. Washington: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crenshaw, K., Gotanda, N., Peller, G., & Thomas, K. (Eds.). (1995). Critical Race Theory: The key writings that formed the movement. New York: New Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cross, W. E., Jr. (1971, July). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience. Black World, 13–27.

  • Cross, W. E., Jr. (1978). Black families and Black identity: A literature review. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 2, 111–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cross, W. E., Jr. (1991). Shades of Black, diversity in African American identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. E., & Jordan, W. J. (1994). The effects of school content, structure, and experiences on African American males in middle and high school. The Journal of Negro Education, 63, 570–587. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2967296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. E. (2001). Black boys at school: Negotiating masculinities and race. In R. Majors (Ed.), Educating our Black children: New directions and radical approaches (pp. 169–182). New York: Routledge Falmer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. E. (2003). Early schooling and academic achievement of African American males. Urban Education, 38, 515–537. doi:10.1177/0042085903256220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dee, T. S. (2006). The why chromosome: How a teacher’s gender affects boys and girls. Stanford: Stanford University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Degruy, J. (2005). Post traumatic slave syndrome: America’s legacy of enduring injury and healing. Baltimore: Uptone Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2001). Critical race theory: An introduction. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desmond-Harris, J. (2011). Another year of success: Urban Prep sends 100 percent of grads to college. Retrieved from http://www.theroot.com/buzz/another-yearsuccess-urban-prep-sends-100-grads-college.

  • Diamond, J. B., & Spillane, J. P. (2004, June). High-stakes accountability in urban elementary schools: Challenging or reproducing inequality. Teachers College Record, 106, 1145–1176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixson, A. D., & Rousseau, C. K. (Eds.). (2006). Critical Race Theory in education: All God’s children got a song. New York: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of Black folk: Essays and sketches. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. (Cambridge).

    Google Scholar 

  • Du Bois, W. E. B. (1899). The Philadelphia Negro: A social study. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edelman, M. W. (2007). Losing our children in America’s cradle to prison pipeline. In National Urban League (Ed.), The State of Black America 2007: Portrait of the Black male (pp. 219–228). Silver Spring: Beckham Publications Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edelman, M. W. (2010, March/April). From P.E. to prison. NEA Today, 28(4), 17.

  • Edward, T. E., Gillborn, D., & Ladson-Billings, G. (Eds.). (2009). Foundations of Critical Race Theory in Education. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Every Urban Prep senior is college-bound. (2010). Retrieved from http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2010-03-05/news/ct-met-urban-prep-college-20100305_1_metal-detectors-college-school-leaders.

  • Fergus, E., Sciurba, K., Martin, M., & Noguera, P. (2009, October 31). Single-sex schools for Black and Latino boys: An intervention in search of theory. In Motion Magazine. Retrieved from http://inmotionmagazine.com/er/fsmn_09.html.

  • Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1986). Black students’ school success: Coping with the “burden of “acting White”. Urban Review, 18, 176–206. doi:10.1007/BF01112192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin-Boyd, N., Franklin, A. J., & Toussaint, P. (2001). Boys into men: Raising our African American teenage sons. New York: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavazzi, S. M., Yarcheck, C. M., & Lim, J. Y. (2005). Ethnicity, gender, and global risk indicators in the lives of status offenders coming to the attention of juvenile court. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49, 696–710. doi:10.1177/0306624X05276467.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gewertz, C. (2007, June 20). Black boys’ educational plight spurs single-gender schools: New federal rules seen as chance for innovation. Education Week, 26(42), 1, 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghee, K. L. (1990). Enhancing educational achievement through cultural awareness in young Black males. Western Journal of Black Studies, 14, 77–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs, J. T. (1988). Young, Black, and male in America: An endangered species. Dover: Auburn House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbradi, A. M. (1989). Educating and motivating African American males to succeed. Journal of Negro Education, 61, 4–11. doi:10.2307/2295624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, D. M., Iwamoto, D. K., Ward, N., Potts, R., & Boyd, E. (2009). Mentoring urban Black middle school male students: Implications for academic achievement. The Journal of Negro Education, 78, 277–289.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, E. T., Gordon, E. W., & Gordon-Nembhard, J. G. (1994). Social science literature concerning African American men. The Journal of Negro Education, 63, 508–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurian, M., Stevens, K., & Daniels, K. (2009). Successful single-sex classrooms: A practical guide to teaching boys and girls separately. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haag, P. (1998). Single-sex education in grades K-12: What does the research tell us? In American Association of University Women Educational Foundation (Ed.), Separated by sex: A critical look at single-sex education for girls. Washington: AAUW.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hacker, A. (1992). Two nations: Black, White, separate, hostile, unequal. New York: Charles Scribner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale, J. (1974). A comparative study of the racial attitudes of Black children who attend a pan-African and a non-pan-African preschool. (Doctoral dissertation). Georgia State University, Atlanta GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale, J. (1986). Black children: Their roots, culture and learning styles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale, J. (2001). Learning while Black. Creating excellence for African American children. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haney, C., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1998). The past and future of U.S. prison policy. Twenty-five years after the Stanford prison experiment. American Psychologist, 53, 709–727. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.53.7.709.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harker, R. (2000, June). Achievement, gender, and the single-sex/coed debate. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 21, 203–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, C. (1993). Whiteness as property. Harvard Law Review, 106, 1709–1791. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1341787.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holzman, M. (2004). Public education and Black male students: A state report card. Schott Educational Inequality Index. Cambridge: The Schott Foundation for Public Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holzner, H., Raphael, S., & Stoll, M. (2002). Perceived criminality, criminal background checks and the racial hiring practices of employers. In M. J. Littles, R. Bowers, & M. Gilmer (Eds.), Why we can’t wait. A case for philanthropic action: Opportunities for improving life outcomes for African American males (p. 12). New York: Ford Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, R. (1997). Educating Black males: Critical lessons in community, schooling, and power. Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard, T. C. (2010). Why race and culture matter in schools: Closing the achievement gap in America’s classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudley, C. A. (1997). Teacher practices and student motivation in a middle school program for African American males. Urban Education, 32, 304–319. doi:10.1177/004208599703200207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, M. C. (2010). Never quit: The complexities of promoting social and academic excellence at a single-gender school for urban African American males. Journal of African American Males in Education, 1, 167–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, W. J., & Cooper, R. (2003). High school reform and the Black male students: Limits and possibilities of policy and practice. Urban Education, 38, 196–216. doi:10.1177/0042085902250485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimerling, J. E. (1994). Black male academies: Re-examining the strategy of integration. Buffalo Law Review, 42, 829.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequities. New York: Crown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kunjufu, J. (1983). Countering the conspiracy to destroy Black boys. Chicago: African American Images.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kunjufu, J. (2007). Raising Black males. Chicago: African American Images.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. Teacher College Record, 97, 47–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladson-Billings, G. (1998). Just what is critical race theory and what's it doing in a nice field like education? International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11, 7–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, C. (1992). The word and the river: Pedagogy as scholarship as struggle. Southern California Law Review, 65, 2231–2298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, C. (2006). African American male teachers in public schools: An examination of three urban districts. Teachers College Record, 108, 224–245. Retrieved from http://people.cehd.tamu.edu/~clewis/AA_male_teachers.pdf.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madhubuti, H. (1990). Black men: Obsolete, single, dangerous? Chicago: Third World Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Majors, R., & Billson, J. M. (1992). The dilemmas of Black manhood in America. New York: Lexington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mallam, W. A. (1993). Impact of school-type and sex of the teacher on female students’ attitudes toward mathematics in Nigerian Secondary schools. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 24, 223–229. doi:10.1007/BF01273693.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mauer, M. (1999). The Crisis of the young African American Male and the criminal justice system. Prepared for U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. Retrieved from The Sentencing Project website: http://www.sentencingproject.org/doc/publications/rd_crisisoftheyoung.pdf.

  • Mauer, M. (2005). Thinking about prison and its impact in the twenty-first century. Walter C. Memorial Lecture. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 2, 607–618.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mead, S. (2006, June). The truth about boys and girls. Washington, DC: Education Sector. Retrieved from http://www.educationsector.org/publications/truth-about-boys-and-girls.

  • Midgett, T. E. (1992). African American male academies from a school-choice perspective. Midwestern Educational Researcher, 5(2), 27–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Midgett, T. E. (1993). African-American male academies: A positive view. Counseling and Development, 21(2), 69–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mills, C. (2003). Reducing overrepresentation of African American males in special education. The role of school social workers. Race, Gender & Class, 10(2), 71–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, A., & Stewart, J. (2010, September 30). The Westinghouse experiment: African-American educators think all-male-schools might improve prospects for Black males. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, p. B 7.

  • Monaghan, P. (1993, June 23). “Critical Race Theory” questions the role of legal doctrine in racial inequality. Chronicle of Higher Education, pp.A7, A9.

  • National Association for Single Sex Public Education (2011). Single-sex schools/schools with single-sex classrooms/what’s the difference? Retrieved from http: www.singlesexschools.org/schools-schools.htm.

  • National Urban League. (2008). The state of Black America: A blueprint for economic equality to close gaps between Blacks and Whites. Silver Spring, MD: Beckham Publications Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noguera, P. (2003). The trouble with Black boys: The role and influence of environmental and cultural factors on the academic performance of African American males. Urban Education, 38, 431–459. doi:10.1177/0042085903038004005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noguera, P. (2008). The trouble with Black boys: And other reflections on race, equity, and the future of public education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noguera, P., & Wing, J. (Eds.). (2006). Unfinished business: Closing the racial achievement gap in school. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oakes, J. (2005). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality (2nd ed.). New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Office for Civil Rights, Department of Education (2006). Title IX Document 34 CFR Part 106. Nondiscrimination on the basis of sex education programs. Retrieved from http://ed.gov/legislation/Fedregister/proprule/2004/030904a.html.

  • Ogbu, J. (1978). Minority education and caste. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogbu, J. (1986). The consequences of the American caste system. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The school achievements of minority children: New perspectives (pp. 19–56). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okoye-Johnson O. (2008, March 7). Single-sex education: A solution for low-achieving inner city public schools? Presented at the Western Regional Council on Educating Black Children Conference, Los Angeles, California.

  • Perry, T., Steele, C., & Hilliard, A. G., III. (2004). Young, gifted and Black: Promoting high achievement among African American students. Boston: Beacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potts, R. G. (2003, March). Emancipatory education versus school-based prevention in African American communities. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 173–183. doi:10:1023/A:1023039007302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riordan, C. (1985). Public and Catholic schooling: The effects of gender context policy. American Journal of Education, 93, 518–540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riordan, C. (1990). Girls and boys in school: Together or separate. New York: Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riordan, C. (1993). The case for single-sex schools. In D. K. Hollinger & R. Adamson (Eds.), Single-sex schooling: Proponents speak (pp. 47–53). Washington: Department of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riordan, C. (1994). Single-gender schools: Outcomes for African and Hispanic Americans. In A. M. Pallas (Ed.), Research in the sociology of education and socialization, 10 (pp. 177–205). Greenwich: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riordan, C. (2002). What do we know about the effects of single-sex schools in the private sector?: Implications for public schools. In A. Datnow & L. Hubbard (Eds.), Gender in Policy and Practice: Perspectives on single-sex and coeducational schooling (pp. 10–30). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, K. B. (2008). Now what? Practical implications. In F. R. Spielhagen (Ed.), Debating single-sex education: Separate and unequal? (pp. 126–135). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rujumba, K. (2010, July 19). Many question value of single-gender schools. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved from http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/10200/1073727-53.stm.

  • Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1995). Failing at fairness: How our schools cheat girls. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salomone, R. C. (2003). Same, different, equal: Rethinking single-sex education. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schott Foundation for Public Education. (2010). Yes, we can: The Schott 50 state report on public education and Black males. Cambridge: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shujaa, M. J. (1994). Too much schooling, too little education: A paradox of Black life in White societies. Trenton: Africa World Press, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spielhagen, F. R. (Ed.). (2008). Debating single-sex education: Separate and equal? Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spielhofer, T., O’Donnell, L., Benton, T., Schagen, S., & Schagen, I. (2002, July). The impact of school size and single-sex education on performance. (Local Government Association Research Report 33). Slough, England: National Foundation for Educational Research.

  • Solórzano, D. G., & Yosso, T. J. (2002). Critical race methodology: Counter-storytelling as an analytical framework for education research. Qualitative Inquiry, 8, 23–44. doi:10.1177/107780040200800103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape the intellectual identities and performance of women and African-Americans. American Psychologist, 52, 613–629.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797–811. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Brown, B. B., & Dornbush, S. M. (1996). Beyond the classroom: Why school reform has failed and what parents need to do. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, H. (1994). Validation of the Scale of Racial Socialization for African American adolescents: Steps toward multi-dimensionality. Journal of Black Psychology, 20, 445–468. doi:1177/00957984940204005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, H. (1995). Relationship of adolescent perceptions of racial socialization to racial identity. Journal of Black Psychology, 21, 49–70. doi:10.1177/0095798495021105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, J., & Scott, J. (1978). The institutional decimation of Black American males. Western Journal of Black Studies, 2, 82–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. N. (2005). Juvenile arrests 2003. OJJDP Juvenie Justice Bullentin, p. 9.

  • Tate, W. F. (1997). Critical Race Theory and education: History, theory and implications. In M. Apple (Ed.), Review of research in education, vol. 22 (pp. 191–243). Washington: American Education Research Association. doi:10.3102/0091732X022001195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, G. L. (2004). Through ebony eyes: What teachers need to know but are afraid to ask about African American students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toldson, I. A. (2008). Breaking barriers. Plotting the paths to academic success for school-age African American males. Washington: Congressional Black Caucus Foundation, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vu, P. (2006, September 19). Single-gender schools on the rise. Stateline.org. Retrieved from http://archive.stateline.org/weekly/Stateline.org-Weekly-Original-Content-2006-09-17.pdf.

  • Watson, C., & Smitherman, G. (1996). Educating African-American males: Detroit’s Malcolm X academy solution. Chicago: Third World Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, M. (1930/1958). The protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. (T. Parsons, Trans.). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

  • Western, B. (2006). Punishment and inequality in America. Princeton: Russell Sage Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, M. E., Keeler, T. E., & DuBois, D. L. (2010). Review of three recent randomized trials of school-based mentoring: Making sense of mixed findings. Society for Research in Child Development Social Policy Report, 24, 1–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker, C. (1991, March). Do Black males need special schools? Ebony Magazine, p. 4

  • Wilkerson, I. (1991, August 14). Detroit’s boys-only schools facing bias lawsuit. The New York Times, p.A1.

  • Williams, V. L. (2004). Reform or retrenchment?: Single-sex education and the construction of race and gender. Wisconsin Law Review 15, 16–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, D. (2008, March). Single-sex education: The new segregation? Retrieved from http://www.education.com/magazine/article/single_sex_education_the_new/html.

  • U.S. Census Bureau (2000). Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2000(120 th ). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000.

  • U.S. Department of Education. (2004). No Child Left Behind: A tool kit for teachers. Washington: Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Education (2005). Single-sex versus coeducational schooling: A systemic review. Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Doc#2005-01.

  • U.S. Department of Education (2006). Nondiscrimination on the basis of sex in education program or activities receiving federal financial assistance (DE Publication No. 206). Washington, DC. U.S. Government Printing Office.

  • U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs (2007). Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Prison inmates at Midyear 2007. Retrieved from http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=840.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Penn State University, 4000 University Drive, McKeesport, PA, 15132, USA

    Anthony B. Mitchell & James B. Stewart

Authors
  1. Anthony B. Mitchell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. James B. Stewart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anthony B. Mitchell.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Mitchell, A.B., Stewart, J.B. The Efficacy of All-Male Academies: Insights from Critical Race Theory (CRT). Sex Roles 69, 382–392 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0074-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0074-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation