Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Experienced and Expected Similarity to Same-Gender Peers: Moving Toward a Comprehensive Model of Gender Segregation

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Gender segregation is often explained by children being interested in interacting with other children who behave similarly to themselves. Children’s beliefs about girls and boys (i.e., their gender cognitions) may also play a role in gender segregation, but this idea has received little attention. In this study, we proposed a model of gender segregation that included similarity on gender-typed behavioral qualities (e.g., rough and tumble play) and gender cognitions concerning perceived similarity to same-gender others, and we assessed whether this more comprehensive heuristic model predicted observed peer interactions in young U.S. children (n = 74; M age = 51 m; middle-class families). A multi-method design was employed including observations of behavior and child reports of gender cognitions. Support was found for the linkages proposed in this comprehensive model for boys; partial support was found for girls. Specifically, the inclusion of gender cognitions was supported for both genders: gender cognitions about perceived similarity related to interactional partner choices for both girls and boys, and accounted for variance in observed partner choices even after behavioral similarity was included in the model. The traditional link concerning behavioral similarity on rough-and-tumble play predicted boys’ but not girls’ interactions. The findings extend knowledge about the role of social cognitions in social behavior, and are consistent with ideas proposed by gender schema theory and other constructivist theories.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexander, G. M., & Hines, M. (1994). Gender labels and play styles: Their relative contribution to children’s selection of playmates. Child Development, 65, 869–879. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00789.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barbu, S., Le-Maner-Idrissi, G., & Jouanjean, A. (2000). The emergence of gender segregation: Towards an integrative perspective. Current Psychology Letters: Behavior, Brain, and Cognition, 3, 7–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354–364. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.88.4.354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bem, D. J. (1996). Exotic becomes erotic: A developmental theory of sexual orientation. Psychological Review, 103, 320–335. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2006). A developmental intergroup theory of social stereotypes and prejudice. In R. V. Kail (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 34, pp. 39–89). San Diego: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2007). Developmental intergroup theory: Explaining and reducing children’s social stereotyping and prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 162–166. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradbard, M. R., & Endsley, R. C. (1983). The effects of sex-typed labeling on preschool children’s information-seeking and retention. Sex Roles, 9, 247–260. doi:10.1007/BF00289627.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradbard, M. R., Martin, C. L., Endsley, R. C., & Halverson, C. F. (1986). Influence of sex stereotypes on children’s exploration and memory: A competence versus performance distinction. Developmental Psychology, 22, 481–486. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.22.4.481.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bukowski, W. H., Gauze, C., Hoza, B., & Newcomb, A. F. (1993). Differences and consistency between same-sex and other-sex peer relationships during early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 29, 255–263. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.2.255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A., & Shirley, L. (2002). Sex-typed preferences in three domains: Do two-year-olds need cognitive variables? British Journal of Psychology, 93, 203–217. doi:10.1348/000712602162544.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, D. R. (1986). Children’s performance as a function of sex-typed labels. British Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 173–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, D. R. (1989). The effects of gender-typed labels on children’s performance. Current Psychology: Research & Reviews, 8, 267–272. doi:10.1007/BF02686725.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., Patterson, G. R., & Griesler, P. C. (1994). Peer adaptions in the development of antisocial behavior: A confluence model. In L. R. Huesmann (Ed.), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (pp. 61–95). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eaton, W. O., & Enns, L. R. (1986). Sex differences in human motor activity level. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 19–28. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.100.1.19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37, 451–463. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.4.451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ennett, S. T., & Bauman, K. E. (1994). The contribution of influence and selection to adolescent peer group homogeneity: The case of adolescent cigarette smoking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 653–663. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.67.4.653.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Espelange, D. L., Holt, M. K., & Henkel, R. R. (2003). Examination of peer-group contextual effects on aggression during early adolescence. Child Development, 74, 205–220. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fabes, R. A. (1994). Physiological, emotional, and behavioral correlates of gender segregation. In C. Leaper (Ed.), Childhood gender segregation: Causes and consequences. New directions for child development (Vol. 65, pp. 19–34). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. doi:10.1002/cd.23219946504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fabes, R. A., Martin, C. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2003). Young children’s play qualities in same-, other-, and mixed-sex peer groups. Child Development, 74, 921–932. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00576.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freedman, D. G. (1980). Sexual dimorphism and the status hierarchy. In D. R. Omark, F. F. Strayer, & D. G. Freedman (Eds.), Dominance relations (pp. 261–271). New York: Garland S. T. P. M. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (1999). Evolution and developmental sex differences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8, 115–120. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gelman, S. A., Taylor, M. G. Nguyen, S. P., Leaper, C., & Bigler, R. S. (2004). Mother-child conversations about gender: Understanding the acquisition of essentialist beliefs. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 69(1). doi:10.1111/j.0037-976X.2004.00276.x

  • Hanish, L. D., Martin, C. L., Fabes, R. A., Leonard, S., & Herzog, M. (2005). Exposure to externalizing peers in early childhood: Homophily and peer contagion processes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 267–281. doi:10.1007/s10802-005-3564-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, J. R. (1995). Where is the child’s environment? Psychological Review, 102, 458–489. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.102.3.458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L., & Powlishta, K. K. (2001). Gender segregation in childhood: A test of the interaction style theory. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 162, 298–313. doi:10.1080/00221320109597485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C. (1988). Same- and cross-sex friends: Implications for interaction and social skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3, 21–37. doi:10.1016/0885-2006(88)90027-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B. (1978). Homophily, selection, and socialization in adolescent friendships. The American Journal of Sociology, 84, 427–436. doi:10.1086/226792.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leaper, C. (1994). Exploring the consequences of gender segregation on social relationships. In C. Leaper (Ed.), Childhood gender segregation: causes and consequences (pp. 67–86). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. doi:10.1002/cd.23219946507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2002). The developmental course of gender differentiation. In W. Overton (Ed.), Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Vol. 67, pp. 22–39). Boston: Blackwell. doi:10.1111/1540-5834.t01-1-00190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liben, L. S., & Signorella, M. L. (1987). Children’s gender schemata vol. 38. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1990). Gender and relationships: A developmental account. American Psychologist, 45, 513–520. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.45.4.513.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1994). Commentary: gender segregation in childhood. In C. Leaper (Ed.), Childhood gender segregation: causes and consequences (Vol. 65, pp. 87–97). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1998). The two sexes: Growing up apart, coming together. Cambridge: Belknap Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (2000). Perspectives on gender development. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 398–406. doi:10.1080/016502500750037946.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1987). Gender segregation in childhood. In W. R. Hayne (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 20, pp. 239–287). Orlando: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L. (1989). Children's use of gender-related information in making social judgments. Developmental Psychology, 25(1), 80–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L. (2000). Cognitive theories of gender development. In T. Eckes & H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 91–121). New Jersey: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2001). The stability and consequences of young children’s same-sex peer interactions. Developmental Psychology, 37, 431–446. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.37.3.431.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. (1981). A schematic processing model of sex typing and stereotyping in children. Child Development, 52, 1119–1134. doi:10.2307/1129498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. F. (1983). The effects of sex-typing schemas on young children’s memory. Child Development, 54, 563–574. doi:10.2307/1130043.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. F. (1987). The roles of cognition in sex role acquisition. In D. B. Carter (Ed.), Current conceptions of sex roles and sex typing: Theory and research (pp. 123–137). NY: Praeger Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L., Eisenbud, L., & Rose, H. (1995). Children’s gender-based reasoning about toys. Child Development, 66, 1453–1471. doi:10.2307/1131657.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L., Fabes, R. A., Evans, S. M., & Wyman, H. (1999). Social cognition on the playground: Children’s beliefs about playing with girls versus boys and their relations to sex segregated play. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 16, 751–771. doi:10.1177/0265407599166005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L., Ruble, D. N., & Szkrybalo, J. (2002). Cognitive theories of early gender development. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 903–933. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.128.6.903.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L., Kornienko, O., Schaefer, D. R. Hanish, L., Fabes, R. A., & Goble, P. (2010). The role of sex of peers and gender-typed activities in young children’s peer affiliative networks: A longitudinal analysis of selection and influence. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Mehta, C. M., & Strough, J. (2009). Sex segregation in friendships and normative contexts across the life span. Developmental Review, 29, 201–220. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2009.06.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, C. F., Ruble, D. N., & Traunter, H. M. (2004). The role of gender stereotypes in children’s preferences and behavior. In C. Tamis-LeMonda & L. Balter (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pellegrini, A. D. (1987). Rough-and-tumble play: Developmental and educational significance. Educational Psychologist, 22, 23–43. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2201_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powlishta, K. K. (1995). Intergroup processes in childhood: Social categorization and sex-role development. Developmental Psychology, 31, 781–788. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.31.5.781.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powlishta, K. K., Serbin, L. A., & Moller, L. C. (1993). The stability of individual differences in gender typing: Implications for understanding gender segregation. Sex Roles, 29, 723–737. doi:10.1007/BF00289214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, K. H., Lynch, D., Coplan, R., Rose-Krasnor, L., & Booth, C. L. (1994). “Birds of a feather…”: Behavioral concordances and preferential personal attraction in children. Child Development, 65, 1778–1785. doi:10.2307/1131293.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D. N., Martin, C. L., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2006). Gender development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child development (pp. 858–932). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, D. R., Light, J. M., Fabes, R. A., Hanish, L. D., & Martin, C. L. (2010). Fundamental principles of network formation among preschool children. Social Networks, 32, 61–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Serbin, L. A., Moller, L. C., Gulko, J., Powlishta, K. K., & Colburne, K. A. (1994). The emergence of gender segregation in toddler playgroups. In: C. Leaper (Ed.), Childhood gender segregation: Causes and consequences. New directions for child development, No. 65. (pp. 7–17). SF: Jossey-Bass. doi:10.1002/cd.23219946503

  • Thornberry, T. P., Lizotte, A. J., Krohn, M. D., Franworth, M., & Jang, S. J. (1994). Delinquent peers’ beliefs and delinquent behavior: A longitudinal test of interaction theory. Criminology, 32, 47–83. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1994.tb01146.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldrop, M. F., & Halverson, C. (1975). Intensive and extensive peer behavior: Longitudinal and cross-sectional analyses. Child Development, 46, 19–26. doi:10.2307/1128829.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winer, B. J. (1962). Statistical principles in experimental design. New York City: McGraw-Hill. doi:10.1037/11774-001.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Zosuls, K. M., Martin, C. L., Ruble, D. N., Miller, C. F., Gaertner, B. M., England, D. E., & Hill, A. P. (2011). “It’s not that we hate you”: Understanding children’s attitudes and expectancies about peer relationships. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 29, 288–304. doi:10.1111/j.2044-835X.2010.02023.x

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287–3701, USA

    Carol Lynn Martin, Richard A. Fabes, Laura Hanish, Stacie Leonard & Lisa M. Dinella

  2. Psychology Department, Monmouth University, West Long Branch, NJ, USA

    Lisa M. Dinella

Authors
  1. Carol Lynn Martin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Richard A. Fabes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Laura Hanish
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Stacie Leonard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Lisa M. Dinella
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carol Lynn Martin.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Martin, C.L., Fabes, R.A., Hanish, L. et al. Experienced and Expected Similarity to Same-Gender Peers: Moving Toward a Comprehensive Model of Gender Segregation. Sex Roles 65, 421–434 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0029-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0029-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation