Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Socially Assigned Gender Nonconformity: A Brief Measure for Use in Surveillance and Investigation of Health Disparities

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Discrimination and violence targeting people perceived as gender nonconforming have been linked to a range of negative health outcomes, and large-scale representative data are needed to begin population surveillance of associated health disparities. A brief self-report measure of gender expression as perceived by others was tested using cognitive interviewing methods in a diverse sample of 82 young adults aged 18–30 years, recruited from the New England region in the U.S. Results identified themes related to item clarity, gender expression variation, undesirability of highest or lowest ends of item range, and tension between self and others’ perceptions. The item performed as expected and is recommended for use on studies of health disparities, including statewide and national public health surveillance tools.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alfieri, T., & Ruble, D. N. (1996). Gender stereotypes during adolescence: Developmental changes and the transition to junior high. Developmental Psychology, 32, 1129–1137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, S. B., Conron, K. J., Patel, A., & Freedner, N. (2007). Making sense of sexual orientation measures: Findings from a cognitive processing study with adolescents on health survey questions. Journal of LGBT Health Research, 3, 55–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beatty, P. C., & Willis, G. B. (2007). Research synthesis: The practice of cognitive interviewing. Public Opinion Quarterly, 71, 287–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blakemore, J. E. O., & Hill, C. (2008). The child gender socialization scale: A measure to compare traditional and feminist parents. Sex Roles, 58, 192–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blashill, A. J., & Powlishta, K. K. (2009). Gay stereotypes: The use of sexual orientation as a cue for gender-related attitudes. Sex Roles, 61, 783–793.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradburn, N. M., & Sudman, S. (1980). Improving interview method and questionnaire design: Response effects to threatening questions and survey research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braun, M. (2008). Using egalitarian items to measure men’s and women’s family roles. Sex Roles, 59, 644–656.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carbone, D. J. (2008). Treatment of gay men for post-traumatic stress disorder resulting from social ostracism and ridicule: Cognitive behavior therapy and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing approaches. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 305–316.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, M. A., Armstrong, G., & Bonacore, L. (2005). Measuring sexual orientation and gender expression among middle-aged and older women in a cancer screening study. Journal of Cancer Education, 20, 108–112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clements-Nolle, K., Marx, R., & Katz, M. (2006). Attempted suicide among transgender persons: The influence of gender-based discrimination and victimization. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(3), 53–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A. (1960). Coefficient for agreement of nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 37–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conron, K., Scout, & Austin, S. (2008). Everyone has a right to, like, check their box: Findings on a measure of gender identity from a cognitive testing study with adolescents. Journal of LGBT Health Research, 4(1), 1–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corliss, H. L., Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2002). Reports of parental maltreatment during childhood in a United States population-based survey of homosexual, bisexual, and heterosexual adults. Child Abuse and Neglect, 26, 1165–1178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corliss, H. L., Belzer, M., Forbes, C., & Wilson, E. C. (2008). An evaluation of service utilization among male-to-female transgender youth: Qualitative study of a clinic-based sample. Journal of LGBT Health Research, 3(2), 49–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2005). Parents’ awareness of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths’ sexual orientation. Journal of Marriage & Family, 67, 474–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and PTSD among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 1462–1482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick, K. K., Euton, S. J., Jones, J. N., & Schmidt, N. B. (2005). Gender role, sexual orientation and suicide risk. Journal of Affective Disorders, 87, 35–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, M. S., Koeske, G. F., Silvestre, A. J., Korr, W. S., & Sites, E. W. (2006). The impact of gender-role nonconforming behavior, bullying, and social support on suicidality among gay male youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 621–623.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, A. R., & Meyer, I. H. (2007). Gender nonconformity as a target of prejudice, discrimination, and violence against LGB individuals. Journal of LGBT Health Research, 3(3), 55–71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, A. H., D’Augelli, A. R., Salter, N. P., & Hubbard, S. M. (2005). Comparing gender expression, gender nonconformity, and parents’ responses of female-to-male and male-to-female transgender youth: Implications for counseling. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 1, 41–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groves, R. M., Fultz, N. H., & Martin, E. (1992). Direct questioning about comprehension in a survey setting. In J. M. Tanur (Ed.), Questions about questions: Inquiries into the cognitive bases of surveys (pp. 49–61). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gruber, J., & Fineran, S. (2008). Comparing the impact of bullying and sexual harassment victimization on the mental and physical health of adolescents. Sex Roles, 59, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiestand, K. R., Horne, S. G., & Levitt, H. M. (2007). Effects of gender identity on experiences of healthcare for sexual minority women. Journal of LGBT Health Research, 3(4), 15–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horn, S. S. (2007). Adolescents’ acceptance of same-sex peers based on sexual orientation and gender expression. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 36, 363–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, T. L., Johnson, T. P., Wilsnack, S. C., & Szalacha, L. A. (2007). Childhood risk factors for alcohol abuse and psychological distress among adult lesbians. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, 769–789.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, C. P., Truman, B. I., Elam-Evans, L. D., Jones, C. A., Jones, C. Y., Jiles, R., et al. (2008). Using “socially assigned race” to probe white advantages in health status. Ethnicity and Disease, 18, 496–504.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landolt, M. A., Bartholomew, K., Saffrey, C., Oram, D., & Perlman, D. (2004). Gender nonconformity, childhood rejection, and adult attachment: A study of gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33, 117–128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levitt, H. M., & Horne, S. G. (2002). Explorations of lesbian-queer genders: Butch, femme, androgynous or ‘other’. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 6(2), 25–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levitt, H. M., & Hiestand, K. R. (2004). A quest for authenticity: Contemporary butch gender. Sex Roles, 50, 605–621.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2002). The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways. Monographs of the Society for Research in Childhood Development, 67(2), 1–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2002). Gender-related traits of heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 83–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ma’ayan, H. D. (2003). Masculine female adolescents at school. Equity & Excellence in Education, 36, 125–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (2008). Scope of explicitly transgender-inclusive antidiscrimination laws. Retrieved from http://www.transgenderlaw.org/ndlaws/ngltftlpichart.pdf

  • Pilkington, N. W., & D’Augelli, A. R. (1995). Victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings. Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 34–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ploderl, M., & Fartacek, R. (2009). Childhood gender nonconformity and harassment as predictors of suicidality among gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual Austrians. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 400–410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Presser, S., Couper, M. P., Lessler, J. T., Martin, E., Martin, J., Rothgeb, J. M., et al. (2004). Methods for testing and evaluating survey questions. Public Opinion Quarterly, 68, 109–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivers, I. (2004). Recollections of bullying at school and their long-term implications for lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 25, 169–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivers, I., & Cowie, H. (2006). Bullying and homophobia in UK schools: A perspective on factors affecting resilience and recovery. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues In Education, 3(4), 11–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosario, M., Schrimshaw, E. W., & Hunter, J. (2008). Butch/femme differences in substance use and abuse among lesbian and bisexual women: Examination and potential explanations. Substance Use and Misuse, 43, 1002–1015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosario, M., Schrimshaw, E. W., Hunter, J., & Levy-Warren, A. (2009). The coming-out process of young lesbian and bisexual women: Are there butch/femme differences in sexual identity development? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 34–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saewyc, E., Skay, C., Richens, K., Reis, E., Poon, C., & Murphy, A. (2006). Sexual orientation, sexual abuse, and HIV-risk behaviors among adolescents in the Pacific Northwest. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 1104–1110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seguino, S. (2007). Plus Ça Change? evidence on global trends in gender norms and stereotypes. Feminist Economics, 13(2), 1–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skidmore, W. C., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., & Bailey, J. M. (2006). Gender nonconformity and psychological distress in lesbians and gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 685–697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 29–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stotzer, R. L. (2008). Gender identity and hate crimes: Violence against transgender people in Los Angeles county. Sexuality Research & Social Policy, 5(1), 43–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stotzer, R. L. (2009). Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 170–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Streiner, D. L., & Norman, G. R. (1995). Health measurement scales: A practical guide to their development and use. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Udry, J. R., & Chantala, K. (2006). Masculinity-femininity predicts sexual orientation in men but not in women. Journal of Biosocial Science, 38, 797–809.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, J. (2009, October 29). Obama signs hate crimes bill into law; Protections extended to gays; act hailed as ‘historic milestone.’ The Washington Times, p. 8A.

  • Willis, G. B. (1994). Cognitive interviewing and questionnaire design: A training manual. Hyattsville: Office of Research and Methodology, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis, G. B., Royston, P., & Bercini, D. (1991). The use of verbal report methods in the development and testing of survey questionnaires. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5, 251–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K., Mitchell, J. N., Bradley, S. J., Tkachuk, J., Cantor, J. M., & Allin, S. M. (2006). The recalled childhood gender identity/gender role questionnaire: Psychometric properties. Sex Roles, 54, 469–483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Tate Forgey, Lindsay Frazier, Gunner Scott, Lydia Shrier, Rosalind Wright, Lauren Nichols, the collaborating community organizations, and the participating young people for their contributions to our study. This study was funded by the Harvard University Open Gate Fund. S.A. Wylie, L.A. Prokop, H.L. Corliss, and S.B. Austin were supported by the Leadership Education in Adolescent Health project, Maternal and Child Health Bureau, HRSA grant 6 T71-MC00009-17.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Adolescent and Young Adult Medicine, Children’s Hospital, 300 Longwood Ave., Boston, MA, 02115, USA

    Sarah A. Wylie, Heather L. Corliss, Vanessa Boulanger & S. Bryn Austin

  2. Department of Health, Behavior, and Society, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Lisa A. Prokop

  3. Department of Society, Human Development, and Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA

    S. Bryn Austin

Authors
  1. Sarah A. Wylie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Heather L. Corliss
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Vanessa Boulanger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lisa A. Prokop
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. S. Bryn Austin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to S. Bryn Austin.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wylie, S.A., Corliss, H.L., Boulanger, V. et al. Socially Assigned Gender Nonconformity: A Brief Measure for Use in Surveillance and Investigation of Health Disparities. Sex Roles 63, 264–276 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9798-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9798-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation