Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Internalized Misogyny as a Moderator of the Link between Sexist Events and Women’s Psychological Distress

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between internalized misogyny and two other forms of internalized sexism, self-objectification and passive acceptance of traditional gender roles. In addition, it examined the moderating role of internalized misogyny in the link between sexist events and psychological distress. Participants consisted of 274 heterosexual women who were recruited at a large southern university in the United States and completed an online survey. Results indicated that internalized misogyny was related to, but conceptually distinct from self-objectification and passive acceptance. Findings also indicated that greater experiences of sexist events were associated with higher levels of psychological distress. In addition, internalized misogyny intensified the relationship between external sexism and psychological distress.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychological Association. (2007). Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Girls and Women. American Psychologist, 62, 949–979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bargad, A., & Hyde, J. S. (1991). Women’s studies: A study of feminist identity development in women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 181–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, L. S. (1994). Subversive dialogues. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan, T., & Smith, J. L. (1999). Using the Internet for psychological research: Personality testing on the World Wide Web. British Journal of Psychology, 90, 125–144.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burch, B. (1987). Barriers to intimacy: Conflicts over power, dependency, and nurturing in lesbian relationships. In Boston Lesbian Psychologies Collective (Ed.), Lesbian psychologies: Explorations and challenges, pp. 126–141. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corning, A. F. (2002). Self-esteem as a moderator between perceived discrimination and psychological distress among women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 117–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cyr, J. J., McKenna-Foley, J. M., & Peacock, E. (1985). Facture structure of the SCL-90-R: Is there one? Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 571–578.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R., Lipman, R. S., Rickets, K., Uhlenhuth, E. H., & Covi, L. (1974). The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL): A self-report symptom inventory. Behavioral Science, 19, 1–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downing, N., & Roush, K. (1985). From passive acceptance to active commitment: A model of feminist identity development for women. The Counseling Psychologist, 13, 695–709.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Enns, C. Z. (2004). Feminist theories and feminist psychotherapies: Origins, themes, and Diversity (2nd ed.). New York: Haworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, A. R., & Holz, K. B. (2007). Perceived discrimination and women’s psychological distress: The roles of collective and personal self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 154–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, A. R., Tokar, D. M., Mergl, M. M., Good, G. E., Hill, M. S., & Blum, S. A. (2000). Assessing women’s feminist identity development: Studies of convergent, discriminant, and structural validity. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 15–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, L. F., Drasgow, F., Hulin, C. L., Gefand, M. J., & Magley, V. J. (1997). Antecedents and consequences of sexual harassment in organizations: A test of an integrated model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 578–589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004). Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 115–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P. (2004). Should we trust web-based studies: A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about Internet questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59, 93–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klonoff, E. A., & Landrine, H. (1995). The Schedule of Sexist Events: A measure of lifetime and recent sexist discrimination in women’s lives. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 439–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klonoff, E. A., Landrine, H., & Campbell, R. (2000). Sexist discrimination may account for well-known gender differences in psychiatric symptoms. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 93–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koss, M. P., Bailey, J. A., Yan, N. P., Herrera, V. M., & Lichter, E. L. (2003). Depression and PTSD in survivors of male violence: Research and training initiatives to facilitate recovery. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 130–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Gibbs, J., Masnning, V., & Lund, M. (1995). Physical and psychiatric correlates of gender discrimination: An application of the Schedule of Sexist Events. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 473–492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michalak, E. E., & Szabo, A. (1998). Guidelines for internet research: An update. European Psychologist, 3(1), 70–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miner-Rubino, K., Twenge, J. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2002). Trait self-objectification in women: Affective and personality correlates. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 147–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moradi, B., & Funderburk, J. R. (2006). Roles of perceived sexist events and perceived social support in the mental health of women seeking counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 464–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moradi, B., & Subich, L. M. (2002). Perceived sexist events and feminist identity development attitudes: Links to women’s psychological distress. The Counseling Psychologist, 30, 44–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moradi, B., & Subich, L. M. (2003). A concomitant examination of the relations of perceived racist and sexist events to psychological distress for African American women. The Counseling Psychologist, 31(4), 451–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moradi, B., & Subich, L. M. (2004). Examining the moderating role of self-esteem in the link between experiences of perceived sexist events and psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 50–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moradi, B., Dirks, D., & Matteson, A. V. (2005). Roles of sexual objectification experiences and internalization of standards of beauty in eating disorder symptomatology: A test and extension of Objectification Theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 420–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muehlenkamp, J. J., & Saris-Baglama, R. N. (2002). Self-objectification and its psychological outcomes for college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 371–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, R. (1990). Classical and modern regression with application (2nd ed.). Boston: Duxbury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noll, S. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). A mediational model linking self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 623–636.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil, J. (1981). Patterns of gender role conflict and strain: Sexism and fear of femininity in men’s lives. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 60, 203–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavalko, E. K., Mossakowski, K. N., & Hamilton, V. J. (2003). Does perceived discrimination affect health? Longitudinal relationships between workplace discrimination and women’s physical and emotional health. Journal of Health and social Behavior, 43, 18–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piggot, M. (2004). Double jeopardy: Lesbians and the legacy of multiple stigmatized identities. Psychology Strand at Swinburne University of Technology, Australia: Unpublished thesis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polusny, M. A., & Follette, V. M. (1995). Long-term correlates of child sexual abuse: Theory and review of the empirical literature. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 4, 143–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saakvitne, K. W., & Pearlman, L. A. (1993). The impact of internalized misogyny and violence against women on feminine identity. In E. P. Cook (Ed.), Women, relationships, and power: Implications for counseling. Alexandria. VA: American Counseling Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sabik, N. J., & Tylka, T. L. (2006). Do feminist identity styles moderate the relation between perceived sexist events and disordered eating? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 77–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, W. C. (1997). World-Wide Web survey research: Benefits, potential problems, and solutions. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 2, 274–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, R., & Hasbrouck, L. (1996). Feminist identity, gender traits, and symptoms of disturbed eating among college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 593–598.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K., Cohen, L. L., & Hyers, L. L. (1998). Experiencing everyday prejudice and discrimination. In J. K. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target's perspective (pp. 37–60) San Diego. CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szymanski, D. M. (2005). Heterosexism and sexism as correlates of psychological distress in lesbians. Journal of Counseling & Development, 83, 355–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szymanski, D. M., & Henning, S. L. (2007). The role of self- objectification in women’s depression: A test of Objectification Theory. Sex Roles, 56, 45–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szymanski, D. M., & Kashubeck-West, S. (2008). Mediators of the relationship between internalized oppressions and lesbian and bisexual women’s psychological distress The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 575–594.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szymanski, D. M., & Owens, G. P. (2009). Group level coping as a moderator between heterosexism and sexism and psychological distress in sexual minority women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 197–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M., & Kuring, J. K. (2004). The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 299–311.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2001). A test of objectification theory in former dancers and non- dancers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 57–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J., & Kimerling, R. (1997). Gender issues in the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD, pp. 192–238. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worell, J., & Remer, P. (2003). Feminist perspectives in therapy: Empowering diverse women (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worell, J., Stilwell, D., Oakley, D., & Robinson, D. (1999). Educating about women and gender: Cognitive, personal, and professional outcomes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23, 797–811.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, A. N., & Landry, L. J. (2007). Embodied discrimination: The relation of sexism and distress to women’s drinking and smoking behaviors. Sex Roles, 56, 193–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, 37996-0900, USA

    Dawn M. Szymanski, Arpana Gupta, Erika R. Carr & Destin Stewart

Authors
  1. Dawn M. Szymanski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Arpana Gupta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Erika R. Carr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Destin Stewart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dawn M. Szymanski.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Szymanski, D.M., Gupta, A., Carr, E.R. et al. Internalized Misogyny as a Moderator of the Link between Sexist Events and Women’s Psychological Distress. Sex Roles 61, 101–109 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9611-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9611-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation