Abstract
This study compared 80 gay and straight Australian males on self report measures of body satisfaction, masculinity, femininity, narcissism, and reasons for exercising at gyms to explore factors related to excessive exercise. Gay males are less satisfied with their bodies compared to straight males. Improving appearance was more important for gay men, while fun was considered more important for straight men. Only sexual orientation and masculinity contributed independently to body satisfaction. Straight males who scored high on masculinity were most satisfied with their bodies, while gay males who scored low on masculinity were least satisfied with their bodies, irrespective of femininity and narcissism. Hours exercising per week and fun as a reason for exercising, significantly contributed to body satisfaction.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alexander, C. J., & Nunno, V. J. (1996). Narcissism and egocentricity in gay men. In C. J. Alexander (Ed.) Gay and lesbian mental health: A sourcebook for practioners (pp. 1–13). New York: Haworth Park Press.
American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-III. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Andersen, A. (1998). Eating disorders in males: Critical questions. In R. Lemberg, & L. Cohn (Eds.) Eating disorders: A reference sourcebook. Arizona: Oryx.
Baker, P. (1994). Under pressure: What the media is doing to men. Cosmopolitan, November, 129–132.
Beard, A. J., & Bakeman, R. (2000). Boyhood gender nonconformity: Reported parental behavior and the development of narcissistic issues. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Psychotherapy, 4, 81–97.
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162.
Beren, S. E., Hayden, H. A., Wilfley, D. E., & Grilo, C. M. (1996). The influence of sexual orientation on body dissatisfaction in adult men and women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 20, 135–141.
Bernard, L. C., & Epstein, D. J. (1978). Sex role conformity in homosexual and heterosexual males. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42, 505–511.
Blouin, A. G., & Goldfield, G. S. (1995). Body image and steroid use in male bodybuilders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, 159–165.
Borchert, J., & Heinberg, L. (1996). Gender schema and gender role discrepancy as correlates of body image. Journal of Psychology, 130, 547–559.
Boroughs, M., & Thompson, J. K. (2002). Exercise and sexual orientation as moderators of body image disturbance and eating disorders in males. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 307–311.
Chung, Y. B. (1995). The construct validity of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory for heterosexual and gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 30, 87–97.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.
Davis, C., Claridge, G., & Brewer, H. (1996). The two faces of narcissism: Personality dynamics of body esteem. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 15, 153–166.
Drewnowski, A., Kurth, C. L., & Krahn, D. D. (1995). Effects of body image on dieting, exercise, and anabolic steroid use in adolescent males. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 7, 381–389.
Drewnowski, A., & Yee, D. K. (1987). Men and body image: Are males satisfied with their body weight? Psychosomatic Medicine, 49, 626–634.
Drummond, M. J. (2005). Men’s bodies. Men and Masculinities, 7, 270–290.
Duggan, S. J., & McCreary, D. R. (2004). Body image, eating disorders, and the drive for muscularity in gay and heterosexual men: The influence of media images. Journal of Homosexuality, 47, 45–58.
Emmons, R. A. (1987). Narcissism: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 11–17.
Fallon, A. E., & Rozin, P. (1985). Sex differences in perceptions of desirable body shape. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94, 102–105.
Franzoi, S. L., & Herzog, M. E. (1986). The Body Esteem Scale: A convergent and discriminant validity study. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50, 24–31.
Franzoi, S. L., & Shields, S. A. (1984). The Body Esteem Scale: Multidimensional structure and sex differences in a college population. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 173–178.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women quarterly, 21, 207–226.
Gillen, M. M., & Lefkowitz, E. S. (2006). Gender role development and body image among male and female first year college students. Sex Roles, 55, 25–37.
Halkitis, P. N., Green, K. A., & Wilton, L. (2004). Masculinity, body image, and sexual behaviour in HIV-seropositive gay men: A two phase formative behavioural investigation using the Internet. International Journal of Men’s Health, 3, 27–42.
Hausman, A., Magweth, B., Walch, T., Rupp, C. I., & Pope, H. G. (2004). Body-image dissatisfaction in gay versus heterosexual men: Is there really a difference? Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 1555–1558.
Hawkins, R. C., Turell, S., & Jackson, L. J. (1983). Desirable and undesirable masculine and feminine traits in relation to student’s dieting tendencies and body image dissatisfaction. Sex Roles, 9, 705–718.
Herzog, D. B., Newman, K. L., & Warshaw, M. (1991). Body image dissatisfaction in homosexual and heterosexual males. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 179, 356–359.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319–340.
Jackson, L. A., Ervin, K. S., & Hodge, C. N. (1992). Narcissism and body image. Journal of Personality, 26, 357–370.
Kaminski, P. L., Chapman, B. P., Haynes, S. D., & Own, L. (2005). Body image, eating behaviours, and attitudes towards exercise among gay and straight men. Eating Behaviors, 6, 179–187.
Kimlicka, T., Cross, H., & Tarnai, J. (1983). A comparison of androgynous, feminine, masculine, and undifferentiated women on self-esteem, body satisfaction, and sexual satisfaction. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 7, 291–294.
King, R., & Fletcher, C. (2003). Body image dissatisfaction and drive for masculinity in gay men: An at risk group? Australian Journal of Psychology—Supplement, 55, 189–189.
Kinsey, A. C., & Pomeroy, C. E. (1948). Sexual Behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: Saunders.
Lakkis, J., Ricciardelli, L. A., & Williams, R. J. (1999). Role of sexual orientation and gender-related traits in disordered eating. Sex Roles, 41, 1–16.
Levesque, M. J., & Vichesky, D. R. (2006). Raising the bar on the body beautiful: An analysis of the body image concerns of homosexual men. Body Image, 3, 45–55.
Lippa, R., & Arad, S. (1997). The structure of sexual orientation and its relation to masculinity, femininity, and gender diagnosticity: Different for men and women? Sex Roles, 37, 187–208.
Loosemoore, D. J., & Moriarty, D. (1990). Body image dissatisfaction and body image distortion in selected groups of males. Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 11, 11–15.
Maltby, J., & Day, L. (2001). The relationship between exercise motives and psychological well-being. Journal of Psychology, 135, 651–661.
Mangweth, B., Hausmann, A., Walch, T., Hotter, A., Rupp, C. I., Biebl, W., et al. (2004). Body fat perception in eating-disordered men. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 102–108.
McCreary, D. R., Saucier, D. M., & Courtenay, W. H. (2005). The drive for muscularity and masculinity: Testing the associations among gender role traits, behaviours, attitudes, and conflict. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 6, 83–94.
Mishkind, M. E., Rodin, J., Silberstein, L. R., & Striegel-Moore, R. H. (1986). The embodiment of masculinity: Cultural, psychological, and behavioural dimensions. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 545–562.
Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., & Sager, C. (2004). Does body satisfaction differ between gay men and lesbian women and heterosexual men and women? A meta-analytic review. Body Image, 1, 127–138.
Olivardia, R., Pope, H. G., Borowiecki, J. J., & Cohane, G. H. (2004). Biceps and body image: The relationship between muscularity and self-esteem, depression and eating disorder symptoms. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 112–120.
Philipson, I. (1985). Gender and narcissism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 213–228.
Pillard, R. C. (1991). Masculinity and femininity in homosexuality: “Inversion” revisited. In J. C. Gonsiorek, & J. D. Weinrich (Eds.) Homosexuality: research implications for public policy (pp. 32–43). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Raskin, R., & Hall, C. S. (1979). A narcissistic personality inventory. Psychological Reports, 45, 590.
Raskin, R., & Terry, H. (1988). A principle-components analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 890–902.
Russell, C. J., & Keel, P. K. (2002). Homosexuality as a specific risk factor for eating disorders in men. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 300–306.
Schwerin, M. J., Corcoran, K. J., Fisher, L., Patterson, D., Askew, W., Olrich, T., et al. (1996). Social physique anxiety, body esteem, and social anxiety in bodybuilders and self reported anabolic steroid users. Addictive Behaviors, 21, 1–8.
Siever, M. (1994). Sexual orientation and gender as factors in socioculturally acquired vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 252–260.
Silberstein, L. R., Mishkind, M. E., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Timko, C., & Rodin, J. (1989). Men and their bodies: A comparison of homosexual and heterosexual men. Psychosomatic Medicine, 51, 337–346.
Silberstein, L. R., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Timko, C., & Rodin, J. (1988). Behavioral and psychological implications of body dissatisfaction: Do men and women differ? Sex Roles, 19, 219–232.
Steiner-Adair, C. (1986). The body politic: Normal female adolescent development and the development of eating disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 14, 95–114.
Strelan, P., & Hargreaves, D. (2005). Reasons for exercise and body esteem: Men’s responses to self-objectification. Sex Roles, 53, 495–503.
Strong, S. M., Singh, D., & Randall, P. K. (2000). Childhood gender nonconformity and body dissatisfaction in gay and heterosexual men. Sex Roles, 43, 427–439.
Strong, S. M., Williamson, D. A., Netemeyer, R. G., & Geer, J. H. (2000). Eating disorder symptoms and concerns about body differ as a function of gender and sexual orientation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 240–255.
Tiggemann, M., & Williamson, S. (2000). The effect of exercise on body satisfaction and self-esteem as a function of gender and age. Sex Roles, 43, 119–127.
Tschanz, B. T., Morf, C. C., & Turner, C. W. (1998). Gender differenced in the structure of narcissism: A multi-sample analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory. Sex Roles, 38, 863–870.
Watson, P. J., Taylor, D., & Morris, R. J. (1987). Narcissism, sex roles, and self-functioning. Sex Roles, 16, 335–349.
Williamson, I., & Hartley, P. (1998). British research into the increased vulnerability of young gay men to eating disturbance and body dissatisfaction. European Eating Disorder Review, 6, 160–170.
Wilson, E. (1997). Why are more men having cosmetic surgery? The Express, 18 February, 48–49.
Winstead, B. A., & Cash, T. F. (1984). Reliability and validity of the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire: A new measure of body image. Paper presented at the meeting of the south eastern Psychological Association, New Orleans, LA.
Wood, M. J. (2004). The gay male gaze: Body image disturbance and gender oppression among gay men. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Services, 17, 43–62.
Yelland, C., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Muscularity and the gay ideal: Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in homosexual men. Eating Behaviors, 4, 107–116.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Brown, J., Graham, D. Body Satisfaction in Gym-active Males: An Exploration of Sexuality, Gender, and Narcissism. Sex Roles 59, 94–106 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9416-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9416-4