Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sexual Harassment Mythology: Definition, Conceptualization, and Measurement

Sex Roles volume 58, pages 599–615 (2008)Cite this article

Abstract

Using rape myth research as a template, we developed a conceptual definition and measurement instrument for the mythology regarding male sexual harassment of women, resulting in the 20-item Illinois Sexual Harassment Myth Acceptance (ISHMA) Scale. Surveys from 337 students in the Midwestern region of the United States revealed that this measure consists of four factors, which share predicted relationships with rape mythology, sexism, hostility toward women, traditional attitudes toward women, and ideological support for the feminist movement. We also found that women and individuals with prior training on sexual harassment reject these myths more than men and untrained individuals. It is hoped that this new definition, conceptualization, and measure will advance knowledge on attitudes that support and perpetuate violence against women.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • Barling, J., Dekker, I., Loughlin, C., Kelloway, E., Fullagar, C., & Johnson, D. (1996). Prediction and replication of the organizational and personal consequences of workplace sexual harassment. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 11, 4–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartling, C. A., & Eisenman, R. (1993). Sexual harassment proclivities in men and women. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31, 189–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beauvais, K. (1986). Workshops to combat sexual harassment: A case study of changing attitudes. Signs, 12, 130–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berdahl, J. L. (2007). The sexual harassment of uppity women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 425–437.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berdahl, J. L., Magley, V. J., & Waldo, C. R. (1996). The sexual harassment of men? Exploring the concept with theory and data. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 527–547.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berdahl, J. L., & Moore, C. (2006). Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 426–436.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J., Malamuth, N. M., & Check, J. V. P. (1985). Sexuality and rape-supportive beliefs. International Journal of Women’s Studies, 8, 398–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our will: Men, women and rape. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cattell, R. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1, 245–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Check, J. V. P., Malamuth, N. M., Elias, B., & Barton, S. (1985). On hostile ground. Psychology Today, 19, 56–61 April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cortina, L. M., Lonsway, K. L., Magley, V. J., Freeman, L. V., Collinsworth, L. L., Hunter, M., et al. (2002). What’s gender got to do with it? Incivility in the federal courts. Law and Social Inquiry, 27, 235–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cowan, G. (2000). Women’s hostility toward women and rape and sexual harassment myths. Violence Against Women, 6, 238–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dekker, I., & Barling, J. (1998). Personal and organizational predictors of workplace sexual harassment of women by men. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3, 7–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, S., Barak, A., & Pinto, A. (1991). Moderating effects of personal cognitions on experienced and perceived sexual harassment of women at the workplace. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 1320–1337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estrich, S. (1991). Sex at work. Stanford Law Review, 43, 813–861.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4, 272–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, H. S. (1978). Attitudes toward rape: A comparative analysis of police, rapists, crisis counselors, and citizens. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 156–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, L. F., & Shullman, S. L. (1993). Sexual harassment: A research analysis and agenda for the 1990′s. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 5–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, C. A., & Donis, F. J. (1996). The relationship between age and gender in workers’ attitudes toward sexual harassment. The Journal of Psychology, 130, 627–633.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foulis, D., & McCabe, M. P. (1997). Sexual harassment: Factors affecting attitudes and perceptions. Sex Roles, 37, 773–798.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, P., Valtinson, G., & Candell, S. (1994). Evaluation of a coeducational interactive rape prevention program. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73, 153–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freels, S., Richman, J., & Rospenda, K. (2005). Gender differences in the causal direction between workplace harassment and drinking. Addictive Behaviors, 30, 1454–1458.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, L. A., Koss, M. P., Fitzgerald, L. F., Russo, N. F., & Keita, G. P. (1993). Male violence against women: Current research and future directions. American Psychologist, 48, 1054–1058.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guadagnoli, E., & Velicer, W. F. (1988). Relation of sample size to the stability of component patterns. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 265–275.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutek, B. A. (1985). Sex and the workplace. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, E. R., Howard, J. A., & Boezio, S. L. (1986). Tolerance of rape: A sexist or antisocial attitude. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10, 101–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, J. A., & Dolkart, J. L. (1992). Working paper on legal reform in the area of sexual harassment: Contributions from social science. Paper presented at the Sex and Power Issues in the Workplace Conference, Bellevue, WA, March.

  • Harned, M., & Fitzgerald, L. (2002). Understanding a link between sexual harassment and eating disorder symptoms: A mediational analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1170–1181.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heppner, M. J., Good, G. E., Hillenbrand-Gunn, T. L., Hawkins, A. K., Hacquard, L. L., Nichols, R. K., et al. (1995a). Examining sex differences in altering attitudes about rape: A test of the Elaboration Likelihood Model. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73, 640–647.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heppner, M. J., Humphrey, C. F., Hillenbrand-Gunn, T. L., & DeBord, K. A. (1995b). The differential effects of rape prevention programming on attitudes, behavior, and knowledge. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 12, 508–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinkin, T. R. (1998). A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods, 1, 104–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huberty, C. J., & Morris, J. D. (1989). Multivariate analysis versus multiple univariate analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 302–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ilies, R., Hauserman, N., Schwochau, S., & Stibal, J. (2003). Reported incidence rates of work-related sexual harassment in the United States: Using meta-analysis to explain reported rate disparities. Personnel Psychology, 56, 607–631.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser, H. F. (1960). The application of electronic computers to factor analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 141–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenig, S., & Ryan, J. (1986). Sex differences in levels of tolerance and attribution of blame for sexual harassment on a university campus. Sex Roles, 15, 535–549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koss, M. P., Goodman, L. A., Browne, A., Fitzgerald, L. F., Keita, G. P., & Russo, N. F. (1994). No safe haven: Male violence against women at home, at work, and in the community. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leidig, M. K. W. (1981). Violence against women: A feminist-psychological analysis. In S. Cox (Ed.), Female psychology (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin’s.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 133–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1995). Attitudinal antecedents of rape myth acceptance: A theoretical and empirical reexamination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 704–711.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lott, B., Reilly, M. E., & Howard, D. R. (1982). Sexual assault and harassment: A campus and community case study. Signs, 8, 296–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4, 84–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, C. A. (1979). Sexual harassment of working women. New Haven, MA: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magley, V. J., Waldo, C. R., Drasgow, F., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). The impact of sexual harassment on military personnel: Is it the same for men and women? Military Psychology, 11, 283–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magley, V. J., Zickar, M. J., Salisbury, J., Drasgow, F., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1997). Evaluating the effectiveness of sexual harassment training. In L. Fitzgerald (Chair), Innovations in sexual harassment theory and methods: Old questions, new answers. Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, St. Louis, MO, April.

  • Maurizio, S. J., & Rogers, J. L. (1992). Sexual harassment and attitudes in rural community care workers. Health Values, 16, 40–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maypole, D. E., & Skaine, R. (1982). Sexual harassment of blue collar workers. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 9, 682–695.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazer, D. B., & Percival, E. F. (1989). Ideology or experience? The relationships among perceptions, attitudes, and experiences of sexual harassment in university students. Sex Roles, 20, 135–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinney, K. (1990). Sexual harassment of university faculty by colleagues and students. Sex Roles, 23, 421–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murrell, A. J., & Dietz-Uhler, B. L. (1993). Gender identity and adversarial sexual beliefs as predictors of attitudes toward sexual harassment. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 169–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Payne, D. L., Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). Rape myth acceptance: Exploration of its structure and its measurement using the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 33, 27–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pryor, J. B. (1987). Sexual harassment proclivities in men. Sex Roles, 17, 269–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reese, L. A., & Lindenberg, K. E. (1999). Implementing sexual harassment policy: Challenges for the public sector workplace. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, M. E., Lott, B., Caldwell, D., & DeLuca, L. (1992). Tolerance for sexual harassment related to self-reported sexual victimization. Gender & Society, 6, 122–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, M. E., Lott, B., & Gallogly, S. M. (1986). Sexual harassment of university students. Sex Roles, 15, 333–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rombough, S., & Ventimiglia, J. C. (1981). Sexism: A tri-dimensional phenomenon. Sex Roles, 7, 747–755.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, L. N., & Martin, L. (1998). Predictors of tolerance of sexual harassment among male U.S. Army soldiers. Violence Against Women, 4, 491–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, B. E. (1982). Consciousness about sexual harassment among heterosexual and lesbian women workers. Journal of Social Issues, 38, 75–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwendinger, J. R., & Schwendinger, H. (1974). Rape myths: In legal, theoretical, and everyday practice. Crime & Social Justice, 1, 18–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sigler, R. T., & Johnson, I. M. (1986). Public perceptions of the need for criminalization of sexual harassment. Journal of Criminal Justice, 14, 229–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stockdale, M. S. (1993). The role of sexual misperceptions of women’s friendliness in an emerging theory of sexual harassment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 84–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, C. S. K., Yik, M. S. M., Cheung, F. M. C., Choi, P. K., & Au, K. C. (1995). How do Chinese college students define sexual harassment? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10, 503–515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board (1981). Sexual harassment of federal workers: Is it a problem?. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board (1988). Sexual harassment in the federal government: An update. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board (1994). Sexual harassment in the federal workplace: Trends, progress, continuing challenges. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verba, S., DiNunzio, J., & Spaulding, C. (1983). Unwanted attention: Report on a sexual harassment survey. Report to the Faculty Council of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University. Cited in S. Kenig & J. Ryan (1986). Sex differences in levels of tolerance and attribution of blame for sexual harassment on a university campus. Sex Roles, 15, 535–549.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogt, D., Pless, A., King, L., & King, D. (2005). Deployment stressors, gender, and mental health outcomes among Gulf War I veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 115–127.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, J. C., & Brittan-Powell, C. (2001). Men’s attitudes toward race and gender equity: The importance of masculinity ideology, gender-related traits, and reference group identity dependence. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 2, 42–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldo, C. R., Berdahl, J. L., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1998). Are men sexually harassed? If so, by whom? Law & Human Behavior, 22, 59–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. End Violence Against Women International, 3940 Broad Street, Suite 7, Box #150, San Luis Obispo, CA, 93401, USA

    Kimberly A. Lonsway

  2. Departments of Psychology and Women’s Studies, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1043, USA

    Lilia M. Cortina

  3. Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Rd., Unit 1020, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA

    Vicki J. Magley

Authors
  1. Kimberly A. Lonsway
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lilia M. Cortina
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Vicki J. Magley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kimberly A. Lonsway.

Additional information

Some of the work was conducted while the first author was a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the American Bar Foundation in Chicago, Illinois. The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Louise Fitzgerald, Diane Payne, and Kellyn Zimmerlan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lonsway, K.A., Cortina, L.M. & Magley, V.J. Sexual Harassment Mythology: Definition, Conceptualization, and Measurement. Sex Roles 58, 599–615 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9367-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9367-1

Keywords

search

Navigation