Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Resisting Gendered Smoking Pressures: Critical Consciousness as a Correlate of Women's Smoking Status

  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Gender is one of the social structures, along with social class and ethnicity, that shapes women's smoking behaviors. We examined how different responses to gender pressures (internalization and resistance) relate to smoking. We analyzed data from a national random digit dial survey of 945 women and found that never smokers scored high on resistance to gender pressure (indicated by high scores on feminist consciousness) and on education and Body Mass Index; current smokers had the reverse pattern. Ex-smokers scored high on one measure of resistance (advertising skepticism) and on two measures of internalization (embodied femininity and weight concern); they were also likely to have high household income and to be European American. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for smoking cessation programs and antismoking campaigns.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bancroft, A., Wiltshire, S., Parry, O., & Amos, A. (2003). “It's like an addiction first thing...afterwards it's like a habit:” Daily smoking behaviour among people living in areas of deprivation. Social Science and Medicine, 56, 1261–1267.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bay-Cheng, L. Y., Zucker, A. N., Stewart, A. J., & Pomerleau, C. S. (2002). Linking femininity, weight concern, and mental health among Latina, Black, and White women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 36–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernaards, C. A., & Sijtsma, K. (2000). Influence of imputation and EM methods on factor analysis when item nonresponse in questionnaire data is non-ignorable. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 35, 321–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Britton, G. A. (1998). A review of women and tobacco: Have we come such a long way? Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 27, 241–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bordo, S. (1993). Unbearable weight: Feminism, Western culture, and the body. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, C. J. (1996–1997). Smoke and the 'F' word: Women and health. Michigan Feminist Studies, 11, 25–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, C. J., Boyd, T. C., & Cash, J. L. (1999–2000). Why is Virginia slim? Women and cigarette advertising. International Quarterly of Community Health Education, 19, 19–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, T. C., Boyd, C. J. & Greelee, T. B. (2003). A means to an end: Slim hopes and cigarette advertising. Health Promotion Practice, 4, 266–277.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cash, T. F. & Henry, P. E. (1995). Women's body images: Tthe results of a national survey in the U.S.A. Sex Roles, 33, 19–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004a). History of the 1964 Surgeon General's Report on smoking and health. Retrieved August 23, 2004, from http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/30yrsgen.htm

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004b). Tobacco information and prevention source: Overview. Retrieved August 23, 2004, from http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/issue.htm

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004c). Cigarette smoking among adults—United States, 2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 53, 427–431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004d). MediaSharp: Analyzing tobacco and alcohol messages. Retrieved August 23, 2004 from http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/educational_materials/mdiashrp.pdf

  • Chamberlain, K., & O'Neill, D. (1998). Understanding social class differences in health: A qualitative analysis of smokers' health behaviors. Psychology and Health, 13, 1105–1119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chernin, K. (1981). The obsession: Reflections on the tyranny of slenderness. New York: Harper.

    Google Scholar 

  • Condit, D. M. (1996). Tugging at pregnant consumers: Competing “Smoke!” “Don't Smoke!” media messages and their messengers. In R. L. Parrott & C. M. Condit (Eds.), Evaluating women's health messages: A resource book (pp. 139–153). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cortese, A. J. (1999). Provocateur: Images of women and minorities in advertising. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, M., & Unger, R. (2004). Women and gender: A feminist psychology (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dedobbeleer, N., Beland, F., Contandriopoulos, A., & Adrian, M. (2004). Gender and the social context of smoking behaviour. Social Science and Medicine, 58, 1–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elkind, A. K. (1985). The social definition of women's smoking behaviour. Social Science and Medicine, 20, 1269–1278.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ernster, V. L. (1985). Mixed messages for women: A social history of cigarette smoking and advertising. New York State Journal of Medicine, 85, 335–341.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fallon, A. (1990). Culture in the mirror: Sociocultural determinants of body image. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change (pp. 80–109). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. E., Cheung, L., Wolf, A. M., Herzog, D. B., Gortmaker, S. L., & Colditz, G. A. (1999). Exposure to the mass media and weight concerns among girls. Pediatrics, 103, E361–E365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerend, M. A., Boyle, R. G., Peterson, C. B., & Hatsukami, D. K. (1998). Eating behavior and weight control among women using smokeless tobacco, cigarettes, and normal controls. Addictive Behaviors, 23, 171–178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilman, S. E., Abrams, D. B., & Buka, S. L. (2003). Socioeconomic status over the life course and stages of cigarette use: Initiation, regular use, and cessation. Journal of Epidemiological and Community Health, 57, 802–808.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, H. (1992). Surviving by smoking. In S. Wilkinson & C. Kitzinger (Eds.), Women and health: Feminist perspectives (pp. 102–123). London: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, H., & Der, G. (1999). Patterns and predictors of smoking cessation among British women. Health Promotion International, 14, 231–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurin, P., Miller, A., & Gurin, G. (1980). Stratum identification and consciousness. Social Psychology Quarterly, 43, 30–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurin, P., & Townsend, A. (1986). Properties of gender identity and their implications for gender consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 139–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrell, J. S., Bangdiwala, S. I., Deng, S., Webb, J. P., & Bradley, C. (1998). Smoking initiation in youth: The roles of gender, race, socioeconomics, and developmental status. Journal of Adolescent Health, 23, 271–279.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, S. M. (1994). Racial differences in predictors of college women's body image attitudes. Women and Health, 21, 89–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinberg, L. J., & Thompson, J. K. (1995). Body image and televised images of thinness and attractiveness: A controlled laboratory investigation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14, 325–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinberg, L. J., Thompson, J. K. & Stormer, S. (1995). Development and validation of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17, 81–89.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, B. (1982). The ladykillers: Why smoking is a feminist issue. New York: Continuum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis, M. J. (1997). Patterns and predictors of smoking cessation in the general population. In C. T. Bolliger & K. O. Fagerstrom (Eds.), The tobacco epidemic (pp. 151–164). Basel: Karger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellner, D. (1988). Reading images critically: Toward a postmodern pedagogy. Journal of Education, 10, 31–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kilbourne, J. (1994). Still killing us softly: Advertising and the obsession with thinness. In P. Fallon, M. A. Katzman, & S. C. Wooley (Eds.), Feminist perspectives on eating disorders (pp. 395–418). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klecka, W. R. (1980). Discriminant analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klesges, R. C., & Klesges, L. M. (1988). Cigarette smoking as a dieting strategy in a university population. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 7, 413–419.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, M., & Wright, N. E. (2002). Cigarette smoking and the disenfranchisement of adolescent girls: A discourse of resistance? Health Care for Women International, 23, 281–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manfredi, C., Lacey, L. P., Warnecke, R., & Petraitis, J. (1998). Sociopsychological correlates of motivation to quit smoking among low-SES African American women. Health Education and Behavior, 25, 304–318.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morrow, M., Ngoc, D. H., Hoang, T. T., & Trinh, T. H. (2002). Smoking and young women in Vietnam: The influence of normative gender roles. Social Science and Medicine, 55, 681–690.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pampel, F. C. (2003). Age and education patterns of smoking among women in high-income nations. Social Science & Medicine, 57, 1505–1514.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peet, M., & Reed, B. G. (1999). Activism in an introductory women's studies course: Connected learning through the implementation of praxis. Women's Studies Quarterly, 27, 21–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfau, M., Nelson, M. L., & Moster, M. (1996). Women and smoking: Consequences and solutions. In R. L. Parrott & C. M. Condit (Eds.), Evaluating women's health messages: A resource book (pp. 139-153). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pohl, J. M., & Caplan, D. (1998). Smoking cessation: Using group intervention methods to treat low-income women. Nurse Practitioner, 23, 13–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pomerleau, C. S., Berman, B. A., Gritz, E. R., Marks, J. L. & Goeters, S. (1994). Why women smoke. In R. R. Watson (Ed.), Drug and alcohol abuse reviews. Vol. 5: Addictive behaviors in women (pp. 39–70). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pomerleau, C. S., Zucker, A. N., Brouwer, R. J. N., Pomerleau, O. F., & Stewart, A. J. (2001). Race differences in weight concerns among women smokers: Results from two independent samples. Addictive Behaviors, 26, 651–663.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pomerleau, C. S., Zucker, A. N., & Stewart, A. J. (2001). Characterizing concerns about post-cessation weight gain: Results from a national survey of women smokers. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 3, 51–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Price, V., Huang, L., & Tewksbury, D. (1997). Third-person effects of news coverage: Orientations toward media. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 74, 525–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rausch, J. C., Hopp, J., & White, R. (1987). Determinants of smoking behavior among nurses. Journal of Drug Education, 17, 365–377.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodin, J., Silberstein, L., & Striegel-Moore, R. (1984). Women and weight: A normative discontent. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 32, 267–307.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silva, A. P. D., & Stam, A. (1995). Discriminant analysis. In L. G. Grimm & P. R. Yarnold (Eds.), Reading and understanding multivariate statistics (p. 277–318). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. S., & Fiore, M. C. (1999). The epidemiology of tobacco use, dependence, and cessation in the United States. Primary Care, 26, 433–461.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stronks, K., van de Mheen, H. D., Looman, C. W. N., & Mackenbach, J. P. (1997). Cultural, material, and psychosocial correlates of the socioeconomic gradient in smoking behavior among adults. Preventive Medicine, 26, 754–766.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waldron, I. (1991). Patterns and causes of gender differences in smoking. Social Science & Medicine, 32, 989–1005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winkleby, M. A., Jatulis, D. E., Frank, E., & Fortmann, S. P. (1992). Socioeconomic status and health: How education, income, and occupation contribute to risk factors for cardiovascular disease. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 816–820.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, N. (1991). The beauty myth. London: Chatto & Windus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, A. N., Harrell, Z. A., Miner-Rubino, K., Stewart, A. J., Pomerleau, C. S., & Boyd, C. J. (2001). Smoking in college women: The role of thinness pressures, media exposure, and critical consciousness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 233–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, A. N., Ostrove, J. M., & Stewart, A. J. (2002). College-educated women's personality development in adulthood: Perceptions and age differences. Psychology and Aging, 17, 236–244.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, and Program in Women's Studies, George Washington University, 837 22nd St. NW, Washington, District of Columbia, 20052

    Alyssa N. Zucker

  2. Department of Psychology, Program in Women's Studies, and Institute for Research on Women and Gender, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan

    Abigail J. Stewart

  3. Nicotine Research Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, and Substance Abuse Research Center, University of Michigan, USA

    Cynthia S. Pomerleau

  4. School of Nursing and Substance Abuse Research Center, University of Michigan, USA

    Carol J. Boyd

Authors
  1. Alyssa N. Zucker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Abigail J. Stewart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Cynthia S. Pomerleau
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Carol J. Boyd
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alyssa N. Zucker.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zucker, A.N., Stewart, A.J., Pomerleau, C.S. et al. Resisting Gendered Smoking Pressures: Critical Consciousness as a Correlate of Women's Smoking Status. Sex Roles 53, 261–272 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-5684-4

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-5684-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation