Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Gender Role Orientation of Athletes and Nonathletes in a Patriarchal Society: A Study in Turkey

  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to compare the gender role orientation and gender role classification of female and male athletes to those of their nonathlete counterparts. A total of 463 athletes and 378 nonathletes completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory. The findings indicated that athletes score higher on the masculinity and femininity subscales than do nonathletes. Men had higher scores on masculinity than did women, whereas women had higher scores on femininity than did men. In addition, both men and women athletes were mostly classified in the androgynous category. These findings are discussed in relation to the competitive sport environment and Turkish society.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agee, M. L., & Kabasakal, H. E. (1993). Exploring conflict resolution styles: A study of Turkish and American university business students. International Journal of Social Economics, 20, 3–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allison, M. T. (1991). Role conflict and the female athlete: Preoccupations with little ground. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 49–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ataca, B., Sunar, D., & Kağitçibaşi, ç. (1994). Variance infertility due to sex-related differentiation in child-rearing practices. Paper presented at the 12th International Congress of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Pamplona, Spain.

  • Başaran, F. (1974). Psiko-sosyal gelişim: 7–11 yaş çocuklariü- zerinde yapilan bir araştirma [Psycho-social development: Research on 7–11 aged children]. Ankara, Turkey: A.Ü.D.T.C.F. Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Başaran, F. (1992). Üniversite öğrencilerinin değerleri [The university students’ value preferences]. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi Araştirma Dergisi, 14, 13–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1978). The Short Bem Sex Role Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birrell, S., & Theberge, N. (1989). Ideological control of women in sport, In S. Birrell & C. L. Cole (Eds.), Women, sport, and culture (pp. 241–359). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryson, L. (1994). Sport and the maintenance of masculine hegemony. In S. Birrell & C. L. Cole (Eds.), Women, sport, and culture (pp. 47–64). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Challip, L., Villiger, J., & Duignan, P. (1980). Sex role identity in a select sample of women field hockey players. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 11, 240–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Choi, P. Y. L. (2000). Femininity and the physically active woman. London: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • çileli, M. (2000). Change in value orientations of Turkish youth from 1989 to 1995. Journal of Psychology, 134, 297–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coakley, J. J. (1994). Sport in society. St. Louis, MO: Times Mirror/Mosby.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, C. L. (1994). Resisting the canon: Feminist cultural studies, sport, and technologies of the body. In S. Birrell & C. L. Cole. Women, sport and culture (pp. 5–29). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colker, R., & Widom, C. S. (1980). Correlates of female athletic participation: Masculinity, femininity, self-esteem, and attitudes toward women. Sex Roles, 6, 47–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colley, A., Roberts, N., & Chipps, A. (1985). Sex-role identity, personality and participation in team and individual sports by males and females. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 16, 103–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R. (1987). Gender and power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantinople, A. (1973). Masculinity–femininity: An exception to a famous dictum? Psychological Bulletin, 80, 389–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csizma, K. A., Whitting, A. F., & Schurr, K. T. (1988). Sport stereotypes and gender. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 62–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deaux, K. (1992). Personalizing identity and socializing self. In G. M. Breakwell (Ed.), Social psychology of identity and the self-concept, (pp. 9–33). London: Surrey University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Del Rey, P., & Sheppard, S. (1981). Relationship of psychological androgyny in female athletes to self-esteem. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 12, 165–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dilek, Y. (1997). Parents’ role in pre-school children’s gender role socialisation. Unpublished master’s thesis, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.

  • Dökmen, Z. D. (1991). Bem cinsiyet rolü envanterinin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalişmasi [The reliability and validity of Bem Sex Role Inventory]. Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi, 3(1), 81–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, S. W., Gordin, R. D., & Henschen, K. P. (1984). Sex-role orientations of female NCAA championship gymnasts. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 58, 625–626.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eitzen, S., & Sage, G. (1997). Sociology of North American sport (6th ed.). Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erman, T. (2001). Rural migrants and patriarchy in Turkish cities. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 25, 118–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fasting, K. (1993, June). The development of gender as a socio-cultural perspective: Implications for sport psychology. Paper presented at the World Congress of the International Society of Sports Psychology, Lisbon, Portugal.

  • Fasting, K., & Pfister, G. (1997). Opportunities and barriers for sport for women in Turkey: A pilot study. Berlin. Unpublished manuscript.

  • Gill, D. L. (1986). Psychological dynamics of sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Göregenli, M. (1995). Kültürümüz açisindan bireycilik-toplulukçuluk eu$gilimleri: Bir başlangi ç çali şmasi [Individualism-collectivism orientation of our culture: A preliminary study]. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 10, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gürbüz, E. (1985). A measurement of sex-trait stereotypes. Unpublished master’s thesis, Boğaziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey.

  • Gürbüz, E. (1988). A measurement of sex-trait stereotypes. Unpublished master’s thesis, Boğaziçi University, İstanbul, Turkey.

  • Guthrie, S. R., & Castelnuovo, S. (1992). Elite women bodybuilders: Models of resistance or compliance? Play and Culture, 5, 401–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, M. A. (1988). The discourse of gender and sport: From femininity to feminism. Sociology of Sport Journal, 5, 330–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, E. G., Durborow, B., & Progen, J. L. (1986). Self-esteem of female athletes and nonathletes relative to sex role type and sport type. Sex Roles, 15, 379–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henschen, K. P., Edwards, S. W., & Mathinos, L. (1982). Achievement motivation and sex role orientations of high school female track and field athletes versus nonathletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 55, 183–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hortaçsu, N., Kalaycioğlu, S., & Rittersberger-Tilic, H. (2003). Intrafamily aggression in Turkey: Frequency, instigation, and acceptance. Journal of Social Psychology, 143, 163–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • İmamou$glu, E. O., & Karakitapoğlu, A. Z. (1999). 1970’lerden 1990’lara değerler: Üniversite diizeyinde gözlenen zaman, kuşak ve cinsiyet farkliliklari [Value preferences from 1970s to 1990s: Cohort, generation, and gender differences at a Turkish university]. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 14, 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, S. A., & Marsh, H. W. (1986). Athletic or antisocial? The female sport experience. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, 198–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kau$gitçibaşi, ç. (1982). Sex roles, family and community in Turkey. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Turkish Studies Series: 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagitcibasi, C., & Sunar, D. (1992). Family and socialization in Turkey. In J. L. Roopnarine & D. B. Carter (Eds.), Parent–child socialization in diverse cultures, (pp. 75–88). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandiyoti, D. (1995). Ataerkil örüntüler: Türk toplumunda erkek egemenliğinin çözümlenniesine yönelik notlar [Patriarchal patterns: Notes about the solution of man hegemony in Turkish society]. In ş. Tekeli (Eds.), 1980’ler Türkiye’sinde kadin bakiş açisindan kadinlar [Women from the perspective of women in 1980s Turkey] (pp. 367–382). İstanbul, Turkey: İletişim Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karakitapou$glu, Z. A., & İmamou$glu, O. E. (2002). Value domains of Turkish adults and university students. Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 333–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kavuncu, N. (1987). Bem cinsiyet rolü envanterinin Türk toplumuna uyarlama çalişmasi [Adaptation study of Bem Sex Role Inventory to Turkish society]. Unpublished master’s thesis, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.

  • Koyuncu, N. (1988). Cinsiyet rolü kimliği ile ahlak gelişimi evrelerinin karşilaştirilmasi: it Üniversite üçüncü sinif öğrencileri üzerine bir araştirma [The comparison of gender role identity and the stages of moral development: A study of third year university students}]. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey.

  • Lantz, C. D., & Schroder, P. J. (1999). Endorsement of masculine and feminine gender roles: Differences between participation in and identification with the athletic role. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22, 545–556.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markula, P. (1995). Firm but shapely, fit but sexy, strong but thin: The postmodern aerobicizing of female bodies. Sociology of Sport Journal, 12, 424–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H., & Shavelson, R. (1985). Self-concept: Its multifaceted, hierarchical structure. Educational Psychologist, 20, 107–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messner, M. A. (1992). Power at play: Sports and the problem of masculinity. Boston: Beacon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messner, M. A. (1994). Sports and male domination: The female athlete as contested ideological terrain. In S. Birrell & C. L. Cole (Eds.), Women, sport, and culture (pp. 65–80). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, P. J. (1988). Sport and gender. In W. M. Leonard II (Eds.), A sociological perspective of sport (pp. 256–277). New York: MacMillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mutlu, K. (1996). Examining religious beliefs among university students in Ankara. British Journal of Sociology, 47, 353–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers, A. M., & Lips, H. M. (1978). Participation in competitive amateur sports as a function of psychological androgyny. Sex Roles, 4, 471–578.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oglesby, C. A. (1978). Women and sport: From myth to reality. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richman, E. L., & Shaffer, D. R. (2000). “If you let me play sports’’: How might sport participation influence the self-esteem of adolescent females? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 189–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, S. (1997). Multiplicity of selves. In R. D. Ashmore & L. Jussim (Eds.), Self and identity (pp. 23–45). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Royce, W. S., Gebelt, J. L., & Duff, R. W. (2003). Female athletes: Being both athletic and feminine. Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 1. Retrieved February 19, 2004, from http://www.athleticisnight. com/Vol5Issl/FeminineAthletes.html

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakalli, N. (2001). Beliefs about wife beating among Turkish college students: The effects of patriarchy, sexism, and sex differences. Sex Roles, 44, 599–611.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 29–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Theberge, N. (1993). The construction of gender in sport: Women, coaching, and the naturalization of difference. Social Problems, 40, 301–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Üskül, A. K. (1998). How to insult effectively across cultures: Insults as mirrors of the self. Unpublished thesis. Vrije Universiteit, Social Psychology Department, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

  • Wrisberg, C. A., Draper, M. V., & Everett, J. J. (1988). Sex role orientations of male and female collegiate athletes from selected individual and team sports. Sex Roles, 19, 81–90.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sport Sciences Departmant, Faculty of Health Sciences, Baskent University, Ankara, Turkey

    Canan Koca & F. Hülya Aşçi

  2. Physical Education and Sport Department, Faculty of Education Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

    Sadettin Kirazcr

  3. Başkent Üniversitesi Spor Bilimleri Bölümü, Baılica Kampüsü, Eskşehir Yolu 20. km. 06530, Atimesgut, Ankara, Turkey

    Canan Koca

Authors
  1. Canan Koca
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. F. Hülya Aşçi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sadettin Kirazcr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Canan Koca.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Koca, C., Hülya Aşçi, F. & Kirazcr, S. Gender Role Orientation of Athletes and Nonathletes in a Patriarchal Society: A Study in Turkey. Sex Roles 52, 217–225 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-1296-2

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-1296-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation