Abstract
State and federal agencies in the United States annually release millions of hatchery salmon and steelhead into public waters. Many of the hatchery programs are located in areas where the wild populations are now listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) (16 U.S.C. §§ 1531–1544). These hatchery programs pose genetic and ecological risks to wild fish populations. Genetic risks occur when hatchery and wild fish interbreed and usually occur within a taxonomic species. Ecological risks occur when the presence of hatchery fish affects how wild fish interact with their environment or with other species and may affect whole species assemblages. This paper reviews some of the factors that contribute to ecological risks. Important contributing factors include the relative abundance of hatchery and wild fish in natural production areas, hatchery programs that increase density-dependant mortality, residual hatchery fish, some physical advantages that hatchery fish can have over wild fish, and life history characteristics that may make some species especially vulnerable to the effects of ecological risks. Many of these risk factors can be mitigated by management activities that reduce the level of interactions between hatchery and wild fish. This paper concludes by recommending twelve mitigation strategies that may be useful when agencies need to bring hatchery programs into compliance with the take provisions of the ESA.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen KR (1969) Limitations on production in salmonid populations in streams. In: Northcote TG (ed) Symposium on salmon and trout in streams. University of British Columbia, Vancouver, pp 3–18
Araki H, Ardren WR, Olsen E, Cooper B, Blouin M (2006) Reproductive success of captive-bred steelhead trout in the wild: evaluation of three hatchery programs in the Hood River. Conserv Biol 21:181–190
Araki H, Cooper B, Blouin MS (2007) Genetic effects of captive breeding cause a rapid, cumulative fitness decline in the wild. Science 318:100–103
Barrowman NJ, Myers RA, Hilborn R, Kehler DG, Field CA (2003) The variability among populations of coho salmon in the maximum reproductive rate and depensation. Ecol Appl 13:784–793
Beamish RJ, Mahnken C, Neville CM (1997) Hatchery and wild production of Pacific salmon in relation to large-scale, natural shifts in the productivity of the marine environment. ICES J Mar Sci 54:1200–1215
Berejikian B (1995) The effect of hatchery and wild ancestry and experience on the relative ability of steelhead trout fry (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to avoid a benthic predator. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 52:2476–2482
Berejikian BA, Mathews SB, Quinn TP (1996) Effects of hatchery and wild ancestry and rearing environments on the development of agonistic behavior in steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fry. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 53:2004–2014
Berejikian BA, Tezak EP, Schroder SL, Flagg TA, Knudsen CM (1999) Competitive differences between newly emerged offspring of captive-reared and wild coho salmon. Trans Am Fish Soc 128:832–839
Berg OK (1985) The formation of non-anadromous populations of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in Europe. J Fish Biol 27:805–811
Beverton RJH, Holt SJ (1954) On the dynamics of exploited fish populations. The Blackburn Press, NJ
Bigler BS, Welch DW, Helle JH (1996) A review of size trends among North Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 53:455–465
Blankenship L, Brosnan D, Fleming I, McKinley S, Naish K, Secor D (2007) Review of atlantic salmon hatchery protocols, production, and product assessment. Sustainable Ecosystems Institute, Portland, OR, 91 pp
Blumm MC (2002) Sacrificing the salmon: a legal and policy history of the decline of Columbia Basin Salmon. Book World Publications Den Bosch, The Netherlands
Bohlin T, Sundstrom LF, Johnsson JI, Hojesjo J, Pettersson J (2002) Density-dependent growth in brown trout: effects of introducing wild and hatchery fish. J Anim Ecol 71:683–692
Brannas E (1995) First access to territorial space and exposure to strong predation pressure: a conflict in early emerging Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fry. Evol Ecol 9:411–420
Brannon EL, Amend DF, Cronin MA, Lannan JE, LaPatra S, McNeil WJ, Noble RE, Smith CE, Talbot AJ, Wedemeyer GA, Westers H (2004) The controversy about salmon hatcheries. Fisheries 29:12–31
California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG) and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) (2001) Final Report on Anadromous Salmonid Fish Hatcheries in California. California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento, CA, 35 pp
Chandler GL, Bjornn TC (1988) Abundance, growth, and interactions of juvenile steelhead relative to time of emergence. Trans Am Fish Soc 117:432–443
Chapman DW (1962) Aggressive behavior in juvenile coho salmon as a cause of emigration. J Fish Res Bd Can 19:1047–1080
Chilcote MW (2003) Relationship between natural productivity and the frequency of wild fish in mixed spawning populations of wild and hatchery steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 60:1057–1067
Collis K, Beaty RE, Crain BR (1995) Changes in catch rate and diet of northern squawfish associated with the release of hatchery-reared juvenile salmonids in a Columbia River reservoir. N Am J Fish Manage 15:346–357
Cooney RT, Brodeur RD (1998) Carrying capacity and north Pacific salmon production: stock-enhancement implications. Bull Mar Sci 62:443–464
Cushing DH (1973) Dependence of recruitment on parent stock. J Fish Res Bd Can 30:1965–1976
Deverill JI, Adams CE, Bean CW (1999) Prior residence, aggression and territory acquisition in hatchery-reared and wild brown trout. J Fish Biol 55:868–875
Dickhoff WW, Beckman BR, Larson DA, Mahnken C, Schreck CB, Sharp C, Zaugg WS (1995) Quality assessment of hatchery-reared spring chinook smolts in the Columbia River basin. Am Fish Soc Symp 15:292–302
Eninum S, Fleming IA (2001) Implications of stocking: ecological interactions between wild and released salmonids. Nord J Freshw Res 75:56–70
Evenson MD, Ewing RD (1992) Migration characteristics and hatchery returns of winter steelhead volitionally released from Cole River Hatchery, Oregon. N Am J Fish Manage 12:736–743
Fenderson OC, Everhart WH, Muth KM (1968) Comparative agonistic and feeding behavior of hatchery-reared and wild salmon in aquaria. J Fish Res Bd Can 25:1–14
Flagg TA, Waknitz FW, Maynard DJ, Milner GB, Mahnken CVW (1995) The effect of hatcheries on native coho salmon populations in the lower Columbia River. Am Fish Soc Symp 15:366–375
Fleming IA (1998) Pattern and variability in the breeding system of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), with comparisons to other salmonids. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 55(Supp 1):59–76
Fleming IA, Hindar K, Mjolnerod IG, Johsson B, Balstad T, Lamberg A (2000) Lifetime success and interactions of farm salmon invading a native population. Royal Soc Lond 267:1517–1523
Ford M (2002) Selection in captivity during supportive breeding may reduce fitness in the wild. Conserv Biol 16:815–925
Ford MJ, Fuss H, Boelts B, LaHood E, Hard J, Miller J (2006) Changes in run timing and natural smolt production in a naturally spawning coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) population after 60 years of intensive hatchery supplementation. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 63:2343–2355
Fresh KL (1997) The role of competition and predation in the decline of Pacific salmon and steelhead. In: Stouder DJ, Bisson PA, Naiman RJ (eds) Pacific salmon and their ecosystems: status and future options. Chapman and Hall, NY, pp 245–275
Gebhards SV (1960) Biological notes on precocious male Chinook salmon parr in the Salmon River drainage, Idaho. Prog Fish-Culturist 22:121–123
Gee AS, Milner NJ, Hernsworth RJ (1978) The effect of density on mortality in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). J Anim Ecol 47:497–505
Good TP, Waples RS, Adams P (2005) Updated status of federally listed ESUs of West Coast salmon and steelhead. U.S. Dept. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-NWFSC-66, 597 pp
Groot C, Margolis L (1991) Pacific salmon life histories. UBC Press, Vancouver, BC
Gross MR (1998) One species with two biologies: Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the wild and in aquaculture. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 55(Supp 1):131–144
Hargreaves NB, LeBrasseur RJ (1986) Size selectivity of coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) preying on juvenile chum (O. keta) salmon. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 43:581–586
Hawkins SW, Tipping JM (1999) Predation by juvenile hatchery salmonids on wild fall Chinook salmon fry in the Lewis River, Washington. California Fish Game 85:124–129
Heard WR (1998) Do hatchery salmon affect the North Pacific Ocean ecosystem? N Pac Anadr Fish Comm Bull No 1:405–411
Helle JH, Hoffman MS (1995) Size decline and older age at maturity of two chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) stocks in western North America, 1972–92. In: Beamish RJ (ed) Climate change and northern fish populations. Can Spec Publ Fish Aquat Sci 121:245–260
Hilborn R, Eggers D (2000) A review of the hatchery programs for pink salmon in Prince William Sound and Kodiak Island, Alaska. Trans Am Fish Soc 129:333–350
Hilborn R, Walters CJ (1992) Quantitative fisheries stock assessment: choice, dynamics, and uncertainty. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston
Hill MS, Zydlewski GB, Gale WL (2006) Comparisons between hatchery and wild steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) smolts: physiology and habitat use. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 63:1627–1638
Hindar K, Ryman N, Utter F (1991) Genetic effects of cultured fish on natural fish populations. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 48:945–957
Holtby LB, Swain DP, Allan GM (1993) Mirror-elicited agonistic behaviour and body morphology as predictors of dominance status in juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 50:676–684
Hume JMB, Parkinson EA (1987) Effect of stocking density on the survival, growth and dispersal of steelhead trout fry (Salmo gairdneri). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 44:271–281
Hunter JG (1959) Survival and production of pink and chum salmon in a coastal stream. J Fish Res Bd Can 16:835–886
Huntingford FA, de Leaniz CG (1997) Social dominance, prior residence and the acquisition of profitable feeding sties in juvenile Atlantic salmon. J Fish Biol 51:1009–1014
Huntingford FA, Metcalfe NB, Thorpe JE, Graham WD, Adams CE (1990) Social dominance and body size in Atlantic salmon parr, Salmo salar L. J Fish Biol 36:877–881
Idaho Department of Fish and Game (IDFG) (2008) Fish Stocking Information. Available at http://fishandgame.idaho.gov/apps/stocking
Johnsson JI, Hojesjo J, Fleming IA (2001) Behavioural and heart rate responses to predation risk in wild and domesticated Atlantic salmon. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 58:788–794
Keeley ER (2000) An experimental analysis of territory size in juvenile steelhead trout. Anim Behav 59:477–490
Keeley ER (2001) Demographic responses to food and space competition by juvenile steelhead trout. Ecology 82:1247–1259
Keliher P (2004) 2004 Annual Report of the Maine Atlantic Salmon Commission. Maine Atlantic Salmon Commission, Augusta, ME, 72 pp
Kostow K (1995) Biennial report on the status of wild fish in Oregon. Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Portland, OR, 272 pp
Kostow K (1997) The status of salmon and steelhead in Oregon. In: Stouder DJ, Bisson PA, Naiman RJ (eds) Pacific salmon and their ecosystems: status and future options. Chapman and Hall, NY, pp 145–178
Kostow K (2003) Factors that influence Evolutionarily Significant Unit boundaries and status assessment in a highly polymorphic species, Oncorhynchus mykiss, in the Columbia River. Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife Information Report No. 2003-04. Clackamas, OR, 122 pp
Kostow KE (2004) Differences in juvenile phenotypes and survival between hatchery stocks and a natural population provide evidence for modified selection due to captive breeding. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 61:577–589
Kostow KE, Zhou S (2006) The effect of an introduced summer steelhead hatchery stock on the productivity of a wild winter steelhead population. Trans Am Fish Soc 135:825–841
Kostow KE, Marshall AR, Phelps SR (2003) Naturally spawning hatchery steelhead contribute to smolt production but experience low reproductive success. Trans Am Fish Soc 132:780–790
Knudsen CM, Schroder SL, Busack CA, Johnston MV, Pearsons TN, Bosch WJ, Fast DE (2006) Comparison of life history traits between first-generation hatchery and wild upper Yakima River spring Chinook salmon. Trans Am Fish Soc 135:1130–1144
Larkin PA (1977) An epitaph for the concept of Maximum Sustained Yield. Trans Am Fish Soc 106:1–11
Leider S, Chilcote MW, Loch JJ (1984) Spawning characteristics of sympatric populations of steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri): evidence for partial reproductive isolation. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 41:1454–1462
Levin PS, Williams JG (2002) Interspecific effects of artifically propagated fish: an additional conservation risk for salmon. Conserv Biol 16:1581–1587
Levin PS, Zabel RW, Williams JG (2001) The road to extinction is paved with good intentions: negative association of fish hatcheries with threatened salmon. Proc R Soc Lond 268:1153–1158
Lichatowich J (1999) Salmon without rivers: a history of the Pacific Salmon crisis. Island Press, Washington, DC
Lynch M, O’Hely M (2001) Captive breeding and the genetic fitness of natural populations. Conserv Genet 2:363–378
Mackey G, McLean JE, Quinn TP (2001) Comparisons of run timing, spatial distribution and length of wild and newly established hatchery populations of steelhead in Forks Creek, Washington. N Am J Fish Manage 21:717–724
MacLean A, Metcalfe NB, Mitchell D (2000) Alternative competitive strategies in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): evidence from fish damage. Aquaculture 184:291–302
Mahnken C, Prentice E, Waknitz W, Sims MG, Williams J (1982) The application of recent smoltification research to public hatchery releases: an assessment of size/time requirements for Columbia River hatchery coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Aquaculture 28:251–268
Marschall EA, Quinn TP, Roff DA, Hutchings JA, Metcalfe NB, Bakke TA, Saunders RL, Poff NL (1998) A framework for understanding Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) life history. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 55(Supp 1):48–58
McGinnity P, Prodohl P, Ferguson A, Hynes R, Maoileidgh NO, Baker N, Cotter D, O’Hea B, Cooke D, Rogan G, Taggart J, Cross T (2003) Fitness reduction and potential extinction of wild populations of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, as a result of interactions with escaped farm salmon. Proc R Soc Lond 270:2443–2450
McLean JE, Bentzen P, Quinn TP (2004) Differential reproductive success of sympatric, naturally spawning hatchery and wild steelhead, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Environ Biol Fish 69:359–369
McMichael GA, Sharpe CS, Pearsons TN (1997) Effects of residual hatchery-reared steelhead on growth of wild rainbow trout and spring Chinook salmon. Trans Am Fish Soc 126:230–239
McMichael GA, Pearsons TN, Leider SA (1999) Behavioral interactions among hatchery-reared steelhead smolts and wild Oncorhynchus mykiss in natural streams. N Am J Fish Manage 19:948–956
McMichael GA, Pearsons TN, Leider SA (2000) Minimizing ecological impacts of hatchery-reared juvenile steelhead trout on wild salmonids in a Yakima basin watershed. In: Knudsen EE, Steward CR, MacDonald DD, Williams JE, Reiser DW (eds) Sustainable fisheries management: Pacific Salmon. Lewis Publishers, NY, pp 365–380
Mesa MG (1991) Variation in feeding, aggression and position choice between hatchery and wild cutthroat in an artificial stream. Trans Am Fish Soc 120:723–727
Mobrand LE (2008) Ecosystem diagnosis and treatment (EDT). Available at http://www.morbrand.com/MBI/edt.html
Mobrand LE, Barr J, Blankenship L, Campton DE, Evelyn TTP, Flagg TA, Mahnken CVW, Seeb LW, Seidel PR, Smoker WW (2005) Hatchery reform in Washington State: principles and emerging issues. Fisheries 30:11–23
Moffett IJJ, Allen N, Flanagan C, Crozier WW, Kennedy GJA (2006) Fecundity, egg size and early hatchery survival for wild Atlantic salmon from the River Bush. Fish Manage Ecol 13:73–79
Moring JR, Marancik J, Griffiths F (1995) Changes in stocking strategies for Atlantic salmon restoration and rehabilitation in Maine, 1871–1993. Am Fish Soc Symp 15:38–51
Mullan JW, Rockhold A, Chrisman CR (1992) Life histories and precocity of chinook salmon in the mid-Columbia River. Prog Fish-Culturist 54:25–28
Myers JM, Kope RG, Bryant GJ, Teel D, Lierheimer LJ, Wainwright TC, Grant WS, Waknitz FW, Neely K, Lindley ST, Waples RS (1998) Status review of Chinook salmon from Washington, Idaho, Oregon and California. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NWFSC-35, Seattle, WA, 443 pp
Myers RA, Levin SA, Lande R, James FC, Murdoch WW, Paines RT (2004) Hatcheries and endangered salmon. Science 303:1980
Nielsen JL (1994) Invasive cohorts: impacts of hatchery-reared coho salmon on the trophic, developmental, and genetic ecology of wild stocks. In: Stouder DJ, Fresh KL, Feller R (eds) Theory and application in fish feeding ecology. USC Belle Baruch Press, Columbia, pp 361–385
Nickelson T (2003) The influence of hatchery coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) on the productivity of wild coho salmon populations in Oregon coastal basins. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 60:1050–1056
Nickelson TE, Solazzi MF, Johnson SL (1986) Use of hatchery coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) presmolts to rebuild wild populations in Oregon coastal streams. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 43:2443–2449
NOAA Fisheries (2008a) ESA salmon listings. Available at http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/ESA-Salmon-Listings/Salmon-Publications/Index.cfm
NOAA Fisheries (2008b) Columbia River Hatchery Reform Project. Available at http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/Salmon-Harvest-Hatcheries/Hatcheries/Hatchery-Reform-Project.cfm
Noakes DJ, Beamish RJ, Sweeting R, King J (2000) Changing the balance: interactions between hatchery and wild Pacific coho salmon in the presence of regime shifts. N Pac Anadr Fish Comm Bull No 2:155–163
Oregon Department of Fish, Wildlife (ODFW) (2006) Fish Propagation Report for 2005. Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Salem, OR, 114 pp
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (1996) Operation plans for anadromous fish production facilities in the Columbia River Basin, vol II, Oregon. Bonneville Power Administration, Portland OR, 365 pp
Parker RR (1971) Size selective predation among juvenile salmonid fishes in a British Columbia inlet. J Fish Res Bd Can 28:1503–1510
Pearsons TN, Fritts AL (1999) Maximum size of Chinook salmon consumed by juvenile coho salmon. N Am J Fish Manage 19:165–170
Pearsons TN, Fritts AL, Scott JL (2007) The effects of hatchery domestication on competitive dominance of juvenile spring Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 64:803–812
Peery CA, Bjornn TC (2004) Interactions between natural and hatchery Chinook salmon parr in a laboratory stream channel. Fish Res 66:311–324
Pepper VA, Oliver NP, Blundon R (1985) Evaluation of an experiment in Lacustrine rearing of juvenile anadromous Atlantic salmon. N Am J Fish Manage 5:507–525
Peterman RM (1991) Density-dependent marine processes in North Pacific salmonids: lessons for experimental design of large-scale manipulations of fish stocks. ICES Mar Sci Symp 192:69–77
Reinhardt UG, Yamamoto T, Nakano S (2001) Effects of body size and predators on intracohort competition in wild and domesticated juvenile salmon in a stream. Eco Res 16:327–334
Reisenbichler RR, McIntyre JD (1977) Genetic differences in growth and survival of juvenile hatchery and wild steelhead trout, Salmo gairdneri. J Fish Res Bd Can 34:123–128
Reisenbichler RR, Rubin SP (1999) Genetic changes from artificial propagation of Pacific salmon affect the productivity and viability of supplemented populations. ICES J Mar Sci 56:459–466
Reisenbichler RR, Rubin S, Wetzel L, Phelps S (2004) Natural Selection after release from a hatchery leads to domestication in steelhead, Oncorhynchus mykiss. In: Leber KM, Kitada S, Blankenship HL, Svasand T (eds) Stock enhancement and sea ranching. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, pp 371–383
Reynolds JD, Freckleton RP (2005) Population dynamics: growing to extremes. Science 309:567–568
Rhodes JS, Quinn TP (1998) Factors affecting the outcome of territorial contests between hatchery and naturally reared coho salmon parr in the laboratory. J Fish Biol 53:1220–1230
Rhodes JS, Quinn TP (1999) Comparative performance of genetically similar hatchery and naturally reared juvenile coho salmon in streams. N Am J Fish Mang 19:670–677
Ricker WE (1975) Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populations. Fish Res Bd Can Bull 191
Ruggerone GT, Goetz FA (2004) Survival of Puget Sound chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in response to climate-induced competition with pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 61:1756–1770
Ruggerone GT, Nielsen JL (2004) Evidence for competitive dominance of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) over other salmonids in the North Pacific Ocean. Rev Fish Biol Fish 14:371–390
Ruggerone GT, Rogers DE (1992) Predation on sockeye salmon fry by juvenile coho salmon in the Chingnik Lakes, Alaska: implications for salmon management. N Am J Fish Manage 12:87–102
Ruggerone GT, Zimmermann M, Myers KW, Nielsen JL, Rogers DE (2003) Competition between Asian pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) and Alaskan sockeye salmon (O. nerka) in the North Pacific Ocean. Fish Oceanogr 12:209–219
Ruggerone GT, Farley E, Nielsen J, Hagen P (2005) Seasonal marine growth of Bristol Bay sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in relation to competition with Asian pink salmon (O. gorbuscha) and the 1977 ocean regime shift. Fish Bull 103:355–370
Schmitten R, Stelle W, Jones RP (1995) Proposed recovery plan for snake river salmon. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Seattle, WA, 466 pp
Sibly RM, Barker D, Denham MC, Hone J, Pagel M (2005) On the Regulation of populations of mammals, birds, fish, and insects. Science 309:607–610
Slaney TL, McPhail JD, Radford D, Birch GJ (1985) Review of the effects of enhancement strategies on interactions among juvenile salmonids. Can MS Rep Fish Aquat Sci 1852:72
Solazzi MF, Nickelson TE , Johnson SL, Rodgers JD (1999) Final report: development and evaluation of techniques to rehabilitate Oregon’s wild salmonids: Study 1 evaluation of the STEP Hatchbox (fry release) Program Study. Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Corvallis OR, 9 pp
Swain DP, Riddell BE (1990) Variation in agonistic behavior between newly emerged juveniles from hatchery and wild populations of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 47:566–571
Tipping JM, Cooper RV, Byrne JB, Johnson TH (1995) Length and condition factor of migrating and nonmigrating hatchery-reared winter steelhead smolts. Prog Fish-Culturist 57:120–123
United States Atlantic Salmon Assessment Committee (USASAC) (2005) Annual Report of the U.S. Atlantic Salmon Assessment Committee. Annual Report No. 17. North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization (NASCO). Woods Hole, MA, 118 pp
United States Fish, Wildlife Service (USFWS) (2006) Warm Springs National Fish Hatchery Assessments and Recommendations, Final Report. US Fish and Wildlife Service Pacific Region, Portland, OR, 44 pp
United States Fish, Wildlife Service (USFWS) (2007a) Leavenworth, Entiat and Winthrop National Fish Hatcheries Assessments and Recommendations, Final Report. US Fish and Wildlife Service Pacific Region, Portland, OR, 141 pp
United States Fish, Wildlife Service (USFWS) (2007b) Eagle Creek National Fish Hatchery Assessments and Recommendations, Final Report. US Fish and Wildlife Service Pacific Region, Portland, OR, 89 pp
United States Fish, Wildlife Service (USFWS) (2007c) Carson, Spring Creek, Little White Salmon and Willard National Fish Hatcheries Assessments and Recommendations, Final Report. US Fish and Wildlife Service Pacific Region, Portland, OR, 149 pp
United States Fish, Wildlife Service (USFWS) (2008) Proposed process for US Fish and Wildlife Service review of national fish hatcheries in the Columbia Basin. Available at http://www.fws.gov/Pacific/Fisheries/Hatcheryreview/pdf/Hatchery_Review_Summary.pdf
Viola AE, Schuck ML (1995) A method to reduce the abundance of residual hatchery steelhead in rivers. N Am J Fish Manage 15:488–493
Wagner HH (1967) A summary of investigations of the use of hatchery-reared steelhead in the management of a sports fishery. Oregon Game Commission Research Report No. 5, Corvallis, OR, 62 pp
Wagner HH, Wallace RL, Campbell HJ (1963) The seaward migration and return of hatchery-reared steelhead trout Salmo gairdneri Richardson, in the Alsea River, Oregon. Trans Am Fish Soc 92:202–210
Wallis J (1963) An evaluation of Oregon salmon hatcheries. Report series published by The Oregon Fish Commission, Clackamas, OR, 997 pp
Waples RS (1991) Genetic interactions between hatchery and wild salmonids: lessons from the Pacific Northwest. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 48:124–133
Ward BR, Slaney PA (1993) Egg-to-smolt survival and fry-to-smolt density dependence of Keogh River steelhead trout. In: Gibson RJ, Cutting RE (eds) Production of juvenile Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, in natural waters. Can Spec Pub Fish Aquat Sci No 118:209–217
Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) (2008) WDFW Hatchery System Evaluation. Available at http://wdfw.wa.gov/hat/reports/index.htm
Weitkamp LA, Wainwright TC, Bryant GJ, Milner GB, Teel DJ, Kope RG, Waples RS (1995) Status review of coho salmon from Washington, Oregon and California. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NWFSC-24, Seattle, WA, 258 pp
Weber ED, Fausch KD (2003) Interactions between hatchery and wild salmonids in streams: differences in biology and evidence for competition. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 60:1018–1036
White B (2007) Alaska Salmon Enhancement Program, 2006 Annual Report. Fishery Management Report No. 07-04. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Juneau, AK, 47 pp
Wright S (1993) Fishery management of wild salmon stocks to prevent extinction. Fisheries 18:3–4
Zaporozhets OM, Zaporozhets GV (2004) Interaction between hatchery and wild Pacific salmon in the Far East of Russia: a review. Rev Fish Biol Fish 14:305–319
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the World Wildlife Fund, especially Laura Williams, and my Russian colleagues, Vladimir Belyeav and Sergei Zolotukhin, whose invitation and financial support for me to attend their conference, “Current Issues Facing Salmon Hatcheries in the Russian Far East” (Kamchatka 2006), and speak on the ecological risks of hatchery programs prompted me to write this paper. Also thanks to Douglas DeHart for providing valuable comments, insight and discussion.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kostow, K. Factors that contribute to the ecological risks of salmon and steelhead hatchery programs and some mitigating strategies. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries 19, 9–31 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-008-9087-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-008-9087-9