Abstract
We examined whether developing reading skills in the two scripts of Japanese, syllabic Hiragana and morphographic Kanji, had differential effects on underlying cognitive skills. One hundred ninety-one Japanese children (97 girls, 94 boys; Mage = 100.23 months) were assessed on rapid automatized naming (RAN), vocabulary, morphological awareness, visual-spatial skills, Hiragana reading fluency, and Kanji character recognition at the end of Grade 2 and again at the end of Grade 3. Results of cross-lagged analysis showed that Hiragana reading fluency in Grade 2 predicted RAN and visual-spatial skills in Grade 3, and Kanji character recognition in Grade 2 predicted vocabulary in Grade 3, even when the same skills in Grade 2 were controlled. Taken together, these findings suggest that the nature of the script children learn can influence how developing reading skills affect their cognitive underpinnings.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
As there was no available information on the word frequency among children’s reading materials in Japanese, we used the lexical categories provided in the vocabulary database used in educational settings (National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, 2009) as a proxy for word frequency (see Appendices A and B). Most of the words used in both Hiragana and Kanji reading measures were those commonly used for Grades 1 to 3 (75% for the Hiragana words and 77% for the Kanji words), suggesting their oral familiarities for our sample of children in Grades 2 to 3 were largely comparable.
References
Altani, A., Georgiou, G. K., Deng, C.-P., Cho, J.-R., Katopodi, K., Wei, W., & Protopapas, A. (2017). Is processing of symbols and words influenced by writing system? Evidence from Chinese, Korean, English, and Greek. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 164, 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.07.006
Araújo, S., Reis, A., Petersson, K. M., & Faísca, L. (2015). Rapid automatized naming and reading performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107, 868–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000006
Caravolas, M., Lervåg, A., Defior, S., Seidlova Malkova, G., & Hulme, C. (2013). Different patterns, but equivalent predictors of growth in reading in consistent and inconsistent orthographies. Psychological Science, 24, 1398–1407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612473122
Carlisle, J. F. (1995). Morphological awareness and early reading achievement. In L. B. Feldman (Ed.), Morphological aspects of language processing (pp. 189–209). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Chang, L.-Y., Chen, Y.-C., & Perfetti, C. A. (2018). GraphCom: A multidimensional measure of graphic complexity applied to 131 written languages. Behavior Research Methods, 50, 427–449. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0881-y
Compton, D. L. (2003). Modeling the relationship between growth in rapid naming speed and growth in decoding skill in first-grade children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 225–239. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.225
Daniels, P. T., & Share, D. L. (2018). Writing system variation and its consequences for reading and dyslexia. Scientific Studies of Reading, 22, 101–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2017.1379082
Deacon, S. H., Benere, J., & Pasquarella, A. (2013). Reciprocal relationship: Children’s morphological awareness and their reading accuracy across grades 2 to 3. Developmental Psychology, 49, 1113–1126. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029474
Dulay, K. M., Law, S. Y., McBride, C., & Ho, C.S.-H. (2021). Reciprocal effects of morphological awareness, vocabulary knowledge, and word reading: A cross-lagged panel analysis in Chinese. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 206, 105100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105100
Ellis, N. C., Natsume, M., Stavropoulou, K., Hoxhallari, L., Van Daal, V. H. P., Polyzoe, N., Tsipa, M.-L., & Petalas, M. (2004). The effects of orthographic depth on learning to read alphabetic, syllabic, and logographic scripts. Reading Research Quarterly, 39, 438–468. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.39.4.5
Georgiou, G. K., Aro, M., Liao, C.-H., & Parrila, R. (2016). Modeling the relationship between rapid automatized naming and literacy skills across languages varying in orthographic consistency. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 143, 48–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.10.017
Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., & Papadopoulos, T. C. (2008). Predictors of word decoding and reading fluency across languages varying in orthographic consistency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 566–580. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.3.566
Georgiou, G. K., Wei, W., Inoue, T., & Deng, C. (2020). Are the relations of rapid automatized naming with reading and mathematics accuracy and fluency bidirectional? Evidence from a 5-year longitudinal study with Chinese children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112, 1506–1520. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000452
Graham, J. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 549–576. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085530
Harm, M. W., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2004). Computing the meanings of words in reading: Cooperative division of labor between visual and phonological processes. Psychological Review, 111, 662–720. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.111.3.662
Hayashi, Y., & Murphy, V. A. (2013). On the nature of morphological awareness in Japanese-English bilingual children: A cross-linguistic perspective. Bilingualism Language and Cognition, 16, 49–67. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000181
Hulme, C., Zhou, L., Tong, X., Lervåg, A., & Burgoyne, K. (2019). Learning to read in Chinese: Evidence for reciprocal relationships between word reading and oral language skills. Developmental Science, 22, e12745. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12745
Inoue, T., Georgiou, G. K., Muroya, N., Hosokawa, M., Maekawa, H., & Parrila, R. (2020). Predicting the early growth of word and nonword reading fluency in a consistent syllabic orthography. Journal of Research in Reading, 43, 364–381. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12317
Inoue, T., Georgiou, G. K., Muroya, N., Maekawa, H., & Parrila, R. (2017). Cognitive predictors of literacy acquisition in syllabic Hiragana and morphographic Kanji. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 30, 1335–1360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9726-4
Japan Foundation for Educational and Cultural Research. (1998). Kanji mastery levels for each graders at Japanese elementary school. Retrieved from http://www.jfecr.or.jp/publication/pub-data/kanji/index.html
Japanese WISC-IV Publication Committee. (2010). Japanese version of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (4th edn.). Nihon Bunka Kagakusha.
Jeličić, H., Phelps, E., & Lerner, R. M. (2009). Use of missing data methods in longitudinal studies: The persistence of bad practices in developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1195–1199. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015665
Juul, H., Poulsen, M., & Elbro, C. (2014). Separating speed from accuracy in beginning reading development. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106, 1096–1106. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037100
Katz, L., & Frost, R. (1992). The reading process is different for different orthographies: The orthographic depth hypothesis. In R. Frost & L. Katz (Eds.), Orthography, phonology, morphology, and meaning (pp. 67–84). Elsevier.
Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th edn.). Guilford Press.
Kobayashi, M. S., Haynes, C. W., Macaruso, P., Hook, P. E., & Kato, J. (2005). Effects of mora deletion, nonword repetition, rapid naming, and visual search performance on beginning reading in Japanese. Annals of Dyslexia, 55, 105–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-005-0006-7
Kobayashi, T., Inagaki, M., Gunji, A., Yatabe, K., Kaga, M., Goto, T., Koike, T., Wakamiya, E., & Koeda, T. (2010). Developmental changes in reading ability of Japanese elementary school children: Analysis of 4 Kana reading tasks. No to Hattatsu, 42, 15–21. https://doi.org/10.11251/ojjscn.42.15
Koda, K. (2017). Learning to read Japanese. In L. Verhoeven & C. Perfetti (Eds.), Learning to read across languages and writing systems (pp. 31–56). Cambridge University Press.
Koyama, M. S., Hansen, P. C., & Stein, J. F. (2008). Logographic Kanji versus phonographic Kana in literacy acquisition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1145, 41–55. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1416.005
Kuo, L.-J., & Anderson, R. C. (2006). Morphological awareness and learning to read: A cross-language perspective. Educational Psychologist, 41, 161–180. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4103_3
Landerl, K., Freudenthaler, H. H., Heene, M., de Jong, P. F., Desrochers, A., Manolitsis, G., Parrila, R., & Georgiou, G. K. (2019). Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming as longitudinal predictors of reading in five alphabetic orthographies with varying degrees of consistency. Scientific Studies of Reading, 23, 220–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2018.1510936
Lin, D., McBride-Chang, C., Aram, D., Shu, H., Levin, I., & Cho, J.-R. (2012). Maternal mediation of word writing in Chinese across Hong Kong and Beijing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 121–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025383
Lin, D., Sun, H., & McBride, C. (2019). Morphological awareness predicts the growth rate of Chinese character reading. Developmental Science, 19, e12793. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12793
Lin, D., Sun, H., & Zhang, X. (2016). Bidirectional relationship between visual spatial skill and Chinese character reading in Chinese kindergartners: A cross-lagged analysis. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 46, 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.04.008
Logan, J. A. R., Schatschneider, C., & Wagner, R. K. (2011). Rapid serial naming and reading ability: The role of lexical access. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 24, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9199-1
Manolitsis, G., Georgiou, G. K., Inoue, T., & Parrila, R. (2019). Are morphological awareness and literacy skills reciprocally related? Evidence from a cross-linguistic study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111, 1362–1381. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000354
Martin, N. A. (2017). Test of visual perceptual skills (4th edn.). Academic Therapy Publications.
McBride-Chang, C., Cho, J.-R., Liu, H., Wagner, R. K., Shu, H., Zhou, A., Cheuk, C.S.-M., & Muse, A. (2005). Changing models across cultures: Associations of phonological awareness and morphological structure awareness with vocabulary and word recognition in second graders from Beijing, Hong Kong, Korea, and the United States. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 92, 140–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2005.03.009
McBride-Chang, C., Zhou, Y., Cho, J.-R., Aram, D., Levin, I., & Tolchinsky, L. (2011). Visual spatial skill: A consequence of learning to read? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109, 256–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.12.003
Mikami, H., Nohara, Y., & Tanabe, M. (2008). Research on learning letters and reading readiness in early childhood. Bulletin of Nagoya University of Arts, 29, 345–365.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2017). Shogakkou gakushu shidou yoryo [Course of Study]. Retrieved from https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2019/03/18/1387017_002.pdf
Moll, K., Ramus, F., Bartling, J., Bruder, J., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., Streiftau, S., Lyytinen, H., Leppänen, P. H. T., Lohvansuu, K., Tóth, D., Honbolygó, F., Csépe, V., Bogliotti, C., Iannuzzi, S., Démonet, J.-F., Longeras, E., Valdois, S., & George, F. (2014). Cognitive mechanisms underlying reading and spelling development in five European orthographies. Learning and Instruction, 29, 65–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.003
Muroya, N., Inoue, T., Hosokawa, M., Georgiou, G. K., Maekawa, H., & Parrila, R. (2017). The role of morphological awareness in word reading skills in Japanese: A within-language cross-orthographic perspective. Scientific Studies of Reading, 21, 449–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9726-4
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2017). Mplus (Version 8.4). Muthén & Muthén.
National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics (2009). Shin kyoiku kihon goi [New basic vocabulary in education]. Meijishoin.
Norton, E. S., & Wolf, M. (2012). Rapid automatized naming (RAN) and reading fluency: Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 427–452. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100431
Ogino, T., Hanafusa, K., Morooka, T., Takeuchi, A., Oka, M., & Ohtsuka, Y. (2017). Predicting the reading skill of Japanese children. Brain and Development, 39, 112–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2016.08.006
Pae, H. K. (2020). Language, cognition, and script effects. In H. K. Pae (Eds.), Script effects as the hidden drive of the mind, cognition, and culture (pp. 3–24). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55152-0
Pan, J., Cui, X., McBride, C., & Shu, H. (2020). An investigation of the bidirectional relations of word reading to timed visual tasks involving different levels of phonological processing in Chinese. Scientific Studies of Reading, 24, 275–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2019.1663857
Peng, P., Lee, K., Luo, J., Li, S., Joshi, R. M., & Tao, S. (2020). Simple view of reading in Chinese: A one-stage meta-analytic structural equation modeling. Review of Educational Research. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320964198
Perfetti, C. A., & Harris, L. N. (2013). Universal reading processes are modulated by language and writing system. Language Learning and Development, 9, 296–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/15475441.2013.813828
Peterson, R. L., Arnett, A. B., Pennington, B. F., Byrne, B., Samuelsson, S., & Olson, R. K. (2017). Literacy acquisition influences children’s rapid automatized naming. Developmental Science, 14, e12589. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12589
Plaut, D. C., McClelland, J. L., Seidenberg, M. S., & Patterson, K. (1996). Understanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review, 103, 56–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.56
Powell, D., & Atkinson, L. (2021). Unraveling the links between rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological awareness, and reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113, 706–718. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000625
Protopapas, A., Altani, A., & Georgiou, G. K. (2013). Development of serial processing in reading and rapid naming. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116, 914–929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.08.004
Protopapas, A., Katopodi, K., Altani, A., & Georgiou, G. K. (2018). Word reading fluency as a serial naming task. Scientific Studies of Reading, 22, 248–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2018.1430804
Ruan, Y., Georgiou, G. K., Song, S., Li, Y., & Shu, H. (2018). Does writing system influence the associations between phonological awareness, morphological awareness, and reading? A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110, 180–202. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000216
Shibahara, N., Shibahara, N., Zorzi, M., Hill, M. P., Wydell, T., & Butterworth, B. (2003). Semantic effects in word naming: Evidence from English and Japanese Kanji. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56, 263–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724980244000369
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2012). Using multivariate statistics (6th edn.). Pearson.
Tanji, T., & Inoue, T. (2021). Early prediction of reading development in Japanese hiragana and kanji: a longitudinal study from kindergarten to grade 1. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10197-8
Taylor, I. & Taylor, M. (2014). Kanji: Chinese characters. In I. Taylor & M. Taylor (Eds.), Writing and literacy in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese: Studies in written language and literacy 14 (2nd edn., pp. 271–283). John Benjamins.
Uno, A., Wydell, T. N., Haruhara, N., Kaneko, M., & Shinya, N. (2009). Relationship between reading/writing skills and cognitive abilities among Japanese primary-school children: Normal readers versus poor readers (dyslexics). Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 22, 755–789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-008-9128-8
Wakamiya, E., Okumura, T., Nakanishi, M., Takeshita, T., Mizuta, M., Kurimoto, N., & Tamai, H. (2011). Effects of sequential and discrete rapid naming on reading in Japanese children with reading difficulty. Brain and Development, 33, 487–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2010.12.008
Wang, L., Liu, D., & Lin, D. (2020, September). The dynamic relations between phonological awareness, morphological awareness and character reading in Chinese early readers: A three-year longitudinal study. Paper presented at the 4th annual conference for the association for reading and writing in Asia (ARWA 2020), Beijing, China.
Wei, W., Georgiou, G. K., & Deng, C. (2015). Examining the cross-lagged relationships between RAN and word reading in Chinese. Scientific Studies of Reading, 19, 446–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2015.1077447
Yamada, J., Kayamoto, Y., & Morita, A. (1999). Japanese kanji as a semantically based orthography. Psychological Reports, 84, 637–642. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1999.84.2.637
Yang, J., Shu, H., McCandliss, B. D., & Zevin, J. D. (2013). Orthographic influences on division of labor in learning to read Chinese and English: Insights from computational modeling. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 16, 354–366. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000296
Yang, L.-Y., Guo, J.-P., Richman, L. C., Schmidt, F. L., Gerken, K. C., & Ding, Y. (2013). Visual skills and Chinese reading acquisition: A meta-analysis of correlation evidence. Educational Psychology Review, 25, 115–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-013-9217-3
Yeung, P.-S., Ho, C.S.-H., Chik, P.P.-M., Lo, L.-Y., Luan, H., Chan, D.W.-O., & Chung, K. K. H. (2011). Reading and spelling Chinese among beginning readers: What skills make a difference? Scientific Studies of Reading, 15, 285–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2010.482149
Ziegler, J. C., Bertrand, D., Toth, D., Csépe, V., Reis, A., Faisca, L., Saine, N., Lyytinen, H., Vaessen, A., & Blomert, L. (2010). Orthographic depth and its impact on universal predictors of reading: A cross-language investigation. Psychological Science, 21, 551–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610363406
Ziegler, J. C., & Goswami, U. (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.3
Funding
This research was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 18K13223) to Tomohiro Inoue.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendices
Appendix A
The items used in the Hiragana word reading fluency test.
Item | N of mora | Notation typea | Word categoryb | Item | N of mora | Notation typea | Word categoryb |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
おひさま | 4 | I | – | こくばん | 4 | II | A1 |
いちねん | 4 | I | – | だいすき | 4 | II | A2 |
いもうと | 4 | I | A1 | うめぼし | 4 | II | A2 |
あしおと | 4 | I | A2 | ざりがに | 4 | II | – |
ひこうき | 4 | I | A1 | くちばし | 4 | II | A1 |
こうえん | 4 | I | A1 | やきそば | 4 | II | – |
たいそう | 4 | I | A1 | どようび | 4 | II | – |
おてんき | 4 | I | – | たんぽぽ | 4 | II | A1 |
ひまわり | 4 | I | A2 | おむすび | 4 | II | – |
さんかく | 4 | I | A2 | てぶくろ | 4 | II | A1 |
おおかみ | 4 | I | A1 | なわとび | 4 | II | A2 |
しつもん | 4 | I | A1 | おりがみ | 4 | II | A2 |
おはよう | 4 | I | A2 | ゆうだち | 4 | II | A1 |
おはなし | 4 | I | – | あめだま | 4 | II | – |
しあわせ | 4 | I | A1 | ざぶとん | 4 | II | A2 |
せんせい | 4 | I | A1 | おばさん | 4 | II | A1 |
らいおん | 4 | I | A1 | いちばん | 4 | II | A1 |
ふうせん | 4 | I | A1 | ともだち | 4 | II | A1 |
しまうま | 4 | I | B3 | あさがお | 4 | II | A1 |
なかよし | 4 | I | A2 | どんぐり | 4 | II | A2 |
いきもの | 4 | I | A2 | はなびら | 4 | II | A1 |
はちみつ | 4 | I | A2 | おじさん | 4 | II | A1 |
かみなり | 4 | I | A1 | ながぐつ | 4 | II | A2 |
おひるね | 4 | I | – | うわばき | 4 | II | A2 |
おとうと | 4 | I | A1 | おだんご | 4 | II | – |
しんせつ | 4 | I | A1 | のこぎり | 4 | II | A1 |
ゆうやけ | 4 | I | A1 | ゆうびん | 4 | II | A1 |
しりとり | 4 | I | A2 | たこあげ | 4 | II | A2 |
にわとり | 4 | I | A1 | しゃしん | 3 | III | A1 |
まんなか | 4 | I | A1 | てっぺん | 4 | III | A1 |
えんそく | 4 | I | A1 | しっぱい | 4 | III | A1 |
むらさき | 4 | I | A1 | ちゃわん | 3 | III | A1 |
しろくま | 4 | I | B2 | がっこう | 4 | III | A1 |
あいさつ | 4 | I | A1 | はらっぱ | 4 | III | A2 |
たんけん | 4 | I | B1 | ほっぺた | 4 | III | A1 |
うんてん | 4 | I | B1 | むぎちゃ | 3 | III | B2 |
わたあめ | 4 | I | – | せっけん | 4 | III | A1 |
えんとつ | 4 | I | A1 | でんしゃ | 3 | III | A1 |
おうえん | 4 | I | A1 | なっとう | 4 | III | A2 |
てのひら | 4 | I | A2 | おもちゃ | 3 | III | A1 |
うたごえ | 4 | II | – | はしっこ | 4 | III | – |
みつばち | 4 | II | A2 | かけっこ | 4 | III | – |
さかだち | 4 | II | A2 | えにっき | 4 | III | – |
すずむし | 4 | II | A2 | いちょう | 3 | III | A2 |
かいがら | 4 | II | A2 | きゅうり | 3 | III | A1 |
ひらがな | 4 | II | A1 | じゅんび | 3 | III | A1 |
てつぼう | 4 | II | A2 | かぼちゃ | 3 | III | A1 |
えんぴつ | 4 | II | A1 | ぎょうざ | 3 | III | – |
どうぶつ | 4 | II | A1 | りょこう | 3 | III | A1 |
ひなどり | 4 | II | – | ちきゅう | 3 | III | A1 |
はまぐり | 4 | II | A1 | はっけん | 4 | III | B1 |
おてがみ | 4 | II | – | あくしゅ | 3 | III | B1 |
Appendix B
The items used in the Kanji character recognition test.
Character | Item | Reading | N of mora | On-/Kun-readinga | N of On-reading | N of Kun-reading | Word categoryb |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
山 | 山 | yama | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
口 | 口 | kuchi | 2 | Kun | 2 | 1 | A1 |
花 | 花 | hana | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
下 | 下 | shita | 2 | Kun | 2 | 6 | A1 |
川 | 川 | kawa | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
水 | 水 | mizu | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
一 | 一 | ichi | 2 | Kun | 2 | 1 | A1 |
中 | 中 | naka | 2 | Kun | 2 | 1 | A1 |
木 | 木 | ki | 1 | Kun | 2 | 2 | A1 |
三 | 三 | san | 2 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
左 | 左 | hidari | 3 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
足 | かけ足 | ashi | 2 | Kun | 1 | 2 | – |
正 | 正月 | shou | 2 | On | 2 | 2 | A1 |
小 | 小とり | ko | 1 | Kun | 1 | 3 | A2 |
上 | 上がる | a | 1 | Kun | 2 | 5 | A1 |
草 | 草 | kusa | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
大 | 大こん | dai | 2 | On | 2 | 1 | A1 |
下 | 下りる | o | 1 | Kun | 2 | 6 | A1 |
入 | 入る | hai | 2 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
六 | 六つ | muQ | 2 | Kun | 1 | 3 | A1 |
太 | 太い | futo | 2 | Kun | 2 | 1 | A1 |
首 | 首 | kubi | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
回 | 回る | mawa | 2 | Kun | 2 | 1 | A1 |
多 | 多い | oo | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
会 | 会う | a | 1 | Kun | 2 | 1 | A1 |
形 | 人形 | gyou | 2 | On | 2 | 2 | A1 |
数 | 数字 | suu | 3 | On | 2 | 2 | A1 |
頭 | 頭 | atama | 3 | Kun | 3 | 2 | A1 |
遠 | 遠い | too | 2 | Kun | 2 | 1 | A1 |
線 | 線 | sen | 2 | On | 1 | 0 | A1 |
細 | 細い | hoso | 2 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
妹 | 妹 | imouto | 4 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
直 | 直す | nao | 2 | Kun | 2 | 2 | A1 |
帰 | 帰国 | ki | 1 | On | 1 | 2 | B2 |
弓 | 弓 | yumi | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
語 | 語る | kata | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | B1 |
交 | 交わる | maji | 2 | Kun | 1 | 3 | A1 |
外 | 外れる | hazu | 2 | Kun | 2 | 3 | A1 |
頭 | 先頭 | tou | 2 | On | 3 | 2 | A1 |
来 | 来年 | rai | 2 | On | 1 | 2 | A2 |
助 | 助ける | tasu | 2 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
習 | 習う | nara | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
筆 | 筆 | fude | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
湖 | 湖 | mizuumi | 4 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
味 | 味 | aji | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
品 | 品物 | shina | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
送 | 送る | oku | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
表 | 表す | arawa | 3 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
写 | 写す | utsu | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
拾 | 拾う | hiro | 2 | Kun | 2 | 1 | A1 |
待 | 待つ | ma | 1 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
銀 | 銀 | gin | 2 | On | 1 | 0 | A1 |
美 | 美しい | utsuku | 3 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
柱 | 柱 | hashira | 3 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
短 | 短い | mijika | 3 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
指 | 指す | sa | 1 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
温 | 温かい | atata | 3 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
植 | 植える | u | 1 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
炭 | 炭 | sumi | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
着 | 着く | tsu | 1 | Kun | 2 | 2 | A1 |
選 | 選ぶ | era | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
景 | 風景 | kei | 2 | On | 1 | 0 | B1 |
孫 | 孫 | mago | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
料 | 料理 | ryou | 2 | On | 1 | 0 | A1 |
救 | 救う | suku | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
失 | 失う | ushina | 3 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
囲 | 囲む | kako | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
航 | 航海 | kou | 2 | On | 1 | 0 | B1 |
働 | 働く | hatara | 3 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
腸 | 腸 | chou | 2 | On | 1 | 0 | B1 |
臣 | 大臣 | jin | 2 | On | 2 | 0 | A1 |
祝 | 祝う | iwa | 2 | Kun | 2 | 1 | A1 |
刷 | 印刷 | satsu | 2 | On | 1 | 1 | A1 |
徒 | 生徒 | to | 1 | On | 1 | 0 | A1 |
例 | 例える | tato | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A2 |
型 | 型 | kata | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | B1 |
昨 | 昨年 | saku | 2 | On | 1 | 0 | B1 |
敗 | 敗北 | hai | 2 | On | 1 | 1 | C2 |
借 | 借金 | syaQ | 2 | On | 1 | 1 | B1 |
改 | 改める | arata | 3 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
編 | 編む | a | 1 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
測 | 測る | haka | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
耕 | 耕す | tagaya | 3 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
布 | 布 | nuno | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | B1 |
修 | 修理 | shuu | 2 | On | 2 | 1 | B1 |
破 | 破る | yabu | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
綿 | 綿 | wata | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
居 | 居る | i | 1 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
情 | 心情 | jou | 2 | On | 2 | 1 | C2 |
絶 | 絶える | ta | 1 | Kun | 1 | 3 | B1 |
務 | 務める | tsuto | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
退 | 退院 | tai | 2 | On | 1 | 1 | B1 |
断 | 断る | kotowa | 3 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
過 | 通過 | ka | 1 | On | 1 | 2 | B1 |
採 | 採る | to | 1 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
属 | 金属 | zoku | 2 | On | 1 | 0 | B1 |
居 | 住居 | kyo | 1 | On | 1 | 1 | B1 |
武 | 武者 | mu | 1 | On | 2 | 0 | C4 |
境 | 境目 | sakai | 3 | Kun | 2 | 1 | – |
豊 | 豊作 | hou | 2 | On | 1 | 1 | B1 |
縮 | 縮む | chiji | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
割 | 割る | wa | 1 | Kun | 1 | 3 | A1 |
閉 | 閉店 | hei | 2 | On | 1 | 2 | C3 |
垂 | 垂直 | sui | 2 | On | 1 | 1 | B1 |
推 | 推理 | sui | 2 | On | 1 | 1 | C1 |
刻 | 刻む | kiza | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
激 | 激しい | hage | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
操 | 操縦 | sou | 2 | On | 1 | 2 | B2 |
難 | 難しい | muzuka | 3 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
並 | 並木 | nami | 2 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
我 | 我 | ware | 2 | Kun | 1 | 2 | B1 |
乱 | 乱れる | mida | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
延 | 延期 | en | 2 | On | 1 | 1 | B1 |
疑 | 疑う | utaga | 3 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
頂 | 頂く | itada | 3 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
従 | 従う | shitaga | 3 | Kun | 3 | 2 | A1 |
厳 | 厳重 | gen | 2 | On | 2 | 2 | B1 |
降 | 降る | fu | 1 | Kun | 1 | 2 | A1 |
拝 | 拝む | oga | 2 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
沿 | 沿う | so | 1 | Kun | 1 | 1 | A1 |
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Inoue, T., Georgiou, G.K., Hosokawa, M. et al. Reading in different scripts predicts different cognitive skills: evidence from Japanese. Read Writ 35, 1425–1448 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10228-4
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10228-4