Abstract
Measures of decoding and oral language have been shown to predict early reading comprehension across a wide variety of languages, though the timeframe and strength of the predictions vary by orthographic depth. This study is the first to examine predictors of early reading in Vietnamese, a transparent orthography of Romanized letters and diacritics. Eighty-two children in Hanoi, Vietnam, completed measures of decoding and oral language in kindergarten (phonological awareness, PA; rapid automatized naming, RAN; receptive and expressive vocabulary) and measures of decoding and reading comprehension in first grade. Average performance at the end of first grade, after just 1 year of formal instruction, was near ceiling on word reading but more variable on nonword and text reading. Kindergarten PA and RAN (but not vocabulary) predicted first-grade decoding after controlling for maternal education and kindergarten decoding, and PA was a stronger predictor than RAN (10% vs. 4% of unique variance). The best predictors of first grade reading comprehension were first-grade decoding (47% of unique variance) and kindergarten expressive vocabulary (4% of unique variance) after controlling for maternal education. Overall, Vietnamese children became accurate and efficient decoders after 1 year of instruction. Findings from RAN and PA suggest their utility in guiding differentiated instruction on decoding. Kindergarten vocabulary, which differed as a function of maternal education, significantly predicted first-grade comprehension.
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Notes
Participants in the present study were from the No Risk and Some Risk groups, indicating typical development and/or minimal risk for developmental language disorder. For language diagnostic procedures, see Pham et al. (2019).
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health – National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders under Grant K23DC014750. We thank the many members of the international research team from Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi National College of Education, Training and Development Center for Special Education, Vietnam National Academy of Education Management, and the San Diego State University Bilingual Development in Context Research Laboratory for assistance with data collection and data entry. We appreciate the participation of kindergarten programs, children and families.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Stimuli for word recognition task
Item | Raw | Ln + 1 | English | Item | Raw | Ln + 1 | English |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. và | 23,695 | 10.07 | and | 26. lên | 4911 | 8.50 | up |
2. có | 18,907 | 9.85 | yes | 27. cả | 4359 | 8.38 | both |
3. đã | 14,009 | 9.55 | already | 28. để | 4083 | 8.31 | to |
4. của | 11,418 | 9.34 | of | 29. vào | 3762 | 8.23 | enter |
5. một | 8110 | 9.00 | one | 30. này | 3758 | 8.23 | this |
6. đến | 8021 | 8.99 | to | 31. năm | 3711 | 8.22 | year |
7. các | 7866 | 8.97 | the | 32. ra | 3635 | 8.20 | out |
8. như | 7521 | 8.93 | as | 33. về | 3615 | 8.19 | about |
9. ông | 7423 | 8.91 | man | 34. họ | 3591 | 8.19 | them |
10. không | 7383 | 8.91 | no | 35. nước | 3589 | 8.19 | water |
11. trong | 7244 | 8.89 | in | 36. trường | 3576 | 8.18 | school |
12. ở | 7219 | 8.88 | at | 37. khi | 3540 | 8.17 | when |
13. cho | 7159 | 8.88 | for | 38. mình | 3502 | 8.16 | body |
14. nhà | 6657 | 8.80 | house | 39. tại | 3248 | 8.09 | in |
15. làm | 6544 | 8.79 | do | 40. nhất | 3173 | 8.06 | best |
16. người | 6487 | 8.78 | people | 41. phải | 3141 | 8.05 | right |
17. được | 6395 | 8.76 | can | 42. chỉ | 2939 | 7.99 | just |
18. con | 6284 | 8.75 | child | 43. thấy | 2932 | 7.98 | see |
19. tôi | 5926 | 8.69 | me | 44. rồi | 2416 | 7.79 | done |
20. sẽ | 5818 | 8.67 | will | 45. cái | 2282 | 7.73 | the |
21. ta | 5596 | 8.63 | we | 46. cô | 2162 | 7.68 | miss |
22. nhiều | 5486 | 8.61 | many | 47. nếu | 2147 | 7.67 | if |
23. những | 5451 | 8.60 | these | 48. tới | 1972 | 7.59 | next |
24. nam | 5413 | 8.60 | south | 49. giờ | 1944 | 7.57 | hour |
25. với | 5296 | 8.57 | with | 50. ăn | 1885 | 7.54 | eat |
Appendix 2: Stimuli for nonword recognition task
Item | Raw | Ln + 1 | Item | Raw | Ln + 1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. ná | 5 | 1.79 | 26. găn | 0 | 0 |
2. thạ | 0 | 0 | 27. tón | 0 | 0 |
3. mêm | 0 | 0 | 28. tợ | 0 | 0 |
4. òn | 2 | 1.10 | 29. phậm | 0 | 0 |
5. ăm | 4 | 1.61 | 30. hánh | 0 | 0 |
6. nhạ | 0 | 0 | 31. hãn | 18 | 2.94 |
7. thẻm | 0 | 0 | 32. ọa | 0 | 0 |
8. đỏi | 0 | 0 | 33. hiệt | 0 | 0 |
9. rĩn | 0 | 0 | 34. nỏi | 0 | 0 |
10. điệm | 0 | 0 | 35. hìn | 0 | 0 |
11. xọa | 0 | 0 | 36. gó | 0 | 0 |
12. hon | 31 | 3.47 | 37. lêm | 0 | 0 |
13. giàn | 60 | 4.11 | 38. quạy | 0 | 0 |
14. gáng | 0 | 0 | 39. đươn | 0 | 0 |
15. choa | 2 | 1.10 | 40. ngãy | 0 | 0 |
16. quẽ | 0 | 0 | 41. bơn | 0 | 0 |
17. mun | 1 | 0.69 | 42. sèo | 0 | 0 |
18. hêng | 0 | 0 | 43. bũng | 0 | 0 |
19. phừ | 0 | 0 | 44. hị | 0 | 0 |
20. chảu | 0 | 0 | 45. hía | 0 | 0 |
21. dụn | 0 | 0 | 46. xứi | 0 | 0 |
22. đẹ | 0 | 0 | 47. ện | 0 | 0 |
23. hản | 0 | 0 | 48. khẹ | 0 | 0 |
24. ém | 18 | 2.94 | 49. trủn | 0 | 0 |
25. giõ | 0 | 0 | 50. khưng | 0 | 0 |
Appendix 3: Reading passage 1
-
Bà cho bé Mai một con gà rất đẹp.
-
Mỗi sáng, Mai đều chờ gà gáy.
-
Nhưng nó không gáy.
-
Một buổi trưa, con gà kêu: “Cục ta cục tác.”
-
Mẹ nói với Mai: “Con gà mái của con mới đẻ trứng đấy!”
-
Bây giờ bé Mai đã biết vì sao con gà này lại không gáy ò ó o.
-
1.
Ai cho Mai con gà?
-
2.
Mỗi sáng, ai chờ con gà gáy?
-
3.
Con gà của Mai kêu thế nào?
-
4.
Con gà của Mai kêu cục ta cục tác vào buổi nào?
-
5.
Mẹ nói gì với Mai?
-
6.
Vì sao con gà của Mai không gáy?
-
English translation
-
Grandma gave Mai a very pretty chicken.
-
Every morning, Mai waited for it to crow.
-
But it did not crow.
-
One afternoon, the chicken said “buck buck buck”.
-
Mom told Mai: “Your hen just laid an egg!”
-
Now, Mai knows why this chicken does not crow.
-
1.
Who gave Mai the chicken?
-
2.
Every morning, who waited for the chicken to crow?
-
3.
How did Mai’s chicken sound?
-
4.
When did Mai’s chicken say buck buck buck?
-
5.
What did mom say to Mai?
-
6.
Why didn’t Mai’s chicken crow?
Passage is from the Vietnamese version (Vu et al., 2016) of the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA: Gove & Wetterberg, 2011) used to measure text reading fluency and reading comprehension.
Appendix 4: Reading passage 2
-
Sang và con mèo xám
-
Tên tôi là Sang, vừa tròn tám tuổi. Em trai
-
tôi là Châu, bốn tuổi. Chúng tôi thích chơi đùa
-
với con mèo nhà mình. Con mèo màu xám,
-
to xù và thích trốn sau tủ.
-
Một hôm, con mèo biến đâu mất. Chúng tôi
-
nghĩ nó đang chơi trốn tìm,
-
nhưng không thấy nó ở những chỗ thường chơi.
-
Vì thế,chúng tôi lục khắp nhà để tìm con mèo.
-
Cuối cùng, chúng tôi thấy nó ở gầm giường,
-
nhưng nó không chỉ có một mình! Nó đẻ ba con
-
mèo con: hai con màu xám, một con màu trắng.
-
Khi chúng tôi kể về những con mèo con,
-
bố mẹ nói mẹ cũng sẽ sinh em.
-
Chúng tôi sắp có một em gái!
-
1.
Ai đang kể câu chuyện này?
-
2.
Vì sao con mèo to xù?
-
3.
Em trai của Sang tên là gì?
-
4.
Sang và Châu thích làm gì?
-
5.
Tại sao Sang và Châu nói con mèo không ở đó một mình?
-
6.
Theo con tại sao con mèo biến đi mất một lúc?
-
7.
Con mèo đẻ mấy con?
-
8.
Sang và Châu tìm thấy con mèo ở đâu?
-
English translation
-
Sang and the grey cat
-
My name is Sang, I am eight years old. My younger brother
-
is Chau, four years old. We like to play
-
with our house cat. The cat is gray,
-
big and likes hiding behind shelves.
-
One day, the cat disappeared. We
-
thought it was playing hide and seek,
-
but we did not see it in the places it usually plays.
-
So we searched everywhere in the house for a cat.
-
Finally, we found it under the bed,
-
But it is not alone! It gave birth to three
-
kittens: two were grey, one was white.
-
When we told our parents about the kittens,
-
they said that mother will also be giving birth.
-
We are about to have a little sister!
-
1.
Who is telling this story?
-
2.
Why is the cat big?
-
3.
What is name of Sang’s younger brother?
-
4.
What do Sang and Chau like to do?
-
5.
Why did Sang and Chau say the cat was not there alone?
-
6.
Why do you think the cat disappeared for a while?
-
7.
How many kittens did the cat have?
-
8.
Where did Sang and Chau find the cat?
Passage is from the Vietnamese version (Vu et al., 2016) of the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA: Gove & Wetterberg, 2011) used to measure text reading fluency and reading comprehension.
Appendix 5: Phonological awareness measure in Vietnamese (PhAM-V)
Section and Instructions | Target response |
---|---|
Ghép Tiếng [Blending] | |
Con sẽ nghe các phần của những từ riêng biệt. Con hãy nối các phần thành từ. [You will hear parts of a word. Connect the parts to say the word.] | |
Practice: cà…chua | cà chua |
1. bàn …ghế | bàn ghế |
2. bác …sĩ | bác sĩ |
3. áo… dài | áo dài |
4. dưa….hấu | dưa hấu |
Practice: kính…thiên…văn | kính thiên văn |
5. xanh…da…trời | xanh da trời |
6. câu…lạc…bộ | câu lạc bộ |
7. bánh…mì…thịt | bánh mì thịt |
8. hình… tam… giác | hình tam giác |
Practice: b…ướm | bướm |
9. h…ọc | học |
10. s…ữa | sữa |
11. g…ạo | gạo |
12. đ…ọc | đọc |
Nhận thức thanh điệu [Tone detection] | |
Bây giờ con sẽ nghe bốn từ. Con hãy nói từ nào khác hẳn so với các từ còn lại. [Now you will hear four words. Say the word that is different from the others.] | |
Practice: to, ti, té, ta | té |
Practice: mở, mủ, mả, mẹ | mẹ |
1. nô, nỉ, no, na | nỉ |
2. kẹ, kị, kí, kệ | kí |
3. hẹ, hệ, họ, hà | hà |
4. rỉ, rỏ, ra, rổ | ra |
5. vù, vo, vi, ve | vù |
6. xo, xu, xa, xè | xè |
Phân chia [Segmentation] | |
Nói …. Bây giờ nói … mà không nói …. [Say …. Now say … without ….] | |
Practice: xe đạp…xe | đạp |
Practice: máy bay …bay | máy |
1. gia đình…đình | gia |
2. quần áo…áo | quần |
3. trường học…học | trường |
4. nhà cửa…nhà | cửa |
Practice: hướng dẫn viên…viên | hướng dẫn |
5. kính thiên văn…kính | thiên văn |
6. mũ bảo hiểm…hiểm | mũ bảo |
7. câu lạc bộ…lạc | câu bộ |
8. câu trả lời…trả | câu lời |
Practice: tìm…t | ìm |
9. chăn…ch | ăn |
10. thông…th | ông |
11. nhân…nh | ân |
12. bút…b | út |
Bây giờ con sẽ nghe bốn từ. Con hãy nói từ nào khác hẳn so với các từ còn lại. [Now you will here four words. Say the word that is different from the others.] | |
Practice: banh, xanh, tanh, leo | leo |
Practice: hâm, loa, xâm, câm | loa |
1. náo, triết, miết, viết | náo |
2. sinh, minh, tôi, đinh | tôi |
3. pháp, táo, ngáp, nháp | táo |
4. mỗi, bữa, sữa, nữa | mỗi |
5. ghe, lông, trông, không | ghe |
6. hoà, loà, vần, xoà | vần |
Appendix 6: Receptive vocabulary
Item | English translation | Raw frequency | Ln + 1 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Practice A | Tiền | Money | 1196 | 7.09 |
Practice B | Đường | Road | 1144 | 7.04 |
1 | Bọ cạp | Scorpion | 1 | 0.69 |
2 | Bút màu | Crayons | 2 | 1.10 |
3 | Kính hiển vi | Microscope | 2 | 1.10 |
4 | Chữ nhật | Rectangle | 2 | 1.10 |
5 | Cằm | Chin | 4 | 1.61 |
6 | Nha sĩ | Dentist | 4 | 1.61 |
7 | Bong bóng | Balloon | 5 | 1.79 |
8 | Tã | Diaper | 5 | 1.79 |
9 | Chanh | Lemon/Lime | 7 | 2.08 |
10 | Ngựa vằn | Zebra | 8 | 2.20 |
11 | Tôm hùm | Lobster | 13 | 2.64 |
12 | Con nhím | Porcuppine | 14 | 2.71 |
13 | Chìa khoá | Keys | 15 | 2.77 |
14 | Con cua | Crab | 17 | 2.89 |
15 | Tê giác | Rhinocerous | 19 | 3.00 |
16 | Cá voi | Whale | 19 | 3.00 |
17 | Nấm | Mushroom | 25 | 3.26 |
18 | Nông trại | Farm | 25 | 3.26 |
19 | Phong bì | Envelope | 29 | 3.40 |
20 | Sách | Book | 29 | 3.40 |
21 | Mì | Noodles | 30 | 3.43 |
22 | Lâu đài | Castle | 30 | 3.43 |
23 | Vòi | Hose | 31 | 3.47 |
24 | Gối | Pillow | 32 | 3.50 |
25 | Giếng | Well | 34 | 3.56 |
26 | Chuối | Banana | 35 | 3.58 |
27 | Dây chuyền | Necklace | 37 | 3.64 |
28 | Lá cờ | Flag | 38 | 3.66 |
29 | Con sói | Wolf | 40 | 3.71 |
30 | Con nai | Deer | 42 | 3.76 |
31 | Quà | Gift/Present | 61 | 4.13 |
32 | Bếp | Stove | 69 | 4.25 |
33 | Cá sấu | Alligator | 70 | 4.26 |
34 | Mây | Cloud | 74 | 4.32 |
35 | Đậu | Beans | 74 | 4.32 |
36 | Tô | Bowl | 88 | 4.49 |
37 | Tóc | Hair | 97 | 4.58 |
38 | Con ong | Bee | 105 | 4.66 |
39 | Cái thang | Ladder | 106 | 4.67 |
40 | Xương | Bone | 136 | 4.92 |
41 | Cơm | Rice | 157 | 5.06 |
42 | Trống | Drum | 167 | 5.12 |
43 | Mưa | Rain | 180 | 5.20 |
44 | Quần | Pants | 198 | 5.29 |
45 | Lỗ tai | Ear | 270 | 5.60 |
46 | Giấy | Paper | 272 | 5.61 |
47 | Khăn | Towel | 273 | 5.61 |
48 | Con trai | Boy | 292 | 5.68 |
49 | Con gà | Chicken | 293 | 5.68 |
50 | Lá | Leaf | 294 | 5.69 |
51 | Con mèo | Cat | 306 | 5.73 |
52 | Bác sĩ | Doctor | 339 | 5.83 |
53 | Con chuột | Mouse | 360 | 5.89 |
54 | Áo | Shirt | 369 | 5.91 |
55 | Con chim | Bird | 407 | 6.01 |
56 | Con gấu | Bear | 474 | 6.16 |
57 | Con thỏ | Rabbit | 480 | 6.18 |
58 | Vua | King | 549 | 6.31 |
59 | Bàn | Table | 549 | 6.31 |
60 | Con cá | Fish | 632 | 6.45 |
Appendix 7: Expressive vocabulary stimuli
Item | English translation | Raw Frequency | Ln + 1 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Practice A | Con chó | Dog | 272 | 5.61 |
Practice B | Ghế | Chair | 212 | 5.36 |
1 | Xe lửa/tàu lửa/tàu điện | Train | 1 | 0.69 |
2 | Con công | Peacock | 1 | 0.69 |
3 | La bàn/bàn ủi | Iron | 2 | 1.10 |
4 | Xe cứu thương/xe cấp cứu | Ambulance | 2 | 1.10 |
5 | Con cá ngựa | Seahorse | 2 | 1.10 |
6 | Cái ô/cây dù | Umbrella | 2 | 1.10 |
7 | Chim cánh cụt | Penguin | 4 | 1.61 |
8 | Máy chụp hình/máy chụp ảnh | Camera | 5 | 1.79 |
9 | Lược | Comb | 5 | 1.79 |
10 | Sở thú/Vườn thú/Vườn bách thú | Zoo | 5 | 1.79 |
11 | Mắt kính/mắt kiếng | Glasses | 6 | 1.95 |
12 | Trạm xăng/cây xăng | Gas station | 6 | 1.95 |
13 | Kim cương | Diamond | 6 | 1.95 |
14 | Lính cứu hoả/Người cứu hoả | Fireman | 9 | 2.30 |
15 | Nến/đèn cầy | Candle | 10 | 2.40 |
16 | (Con) ốc sên | Snail | 10 | 2.40 |
17 | (Con) chuột túi | Kangaroo | 12 | 2.56 |
18 | (Con) bọ rùa | Ladybug | 14 | 2.71 |
19 | (Máy bay) trực thăng | Helicopter | 16 | 2.83 |
20 | (Con) thiên nga | Swan | 18 | 2.94 |
21 | Quạt | Fan | 22 | 3.14 |
22 | Yếm | Bib | 24 | 3.22 |
23 | (Con) ruồi | Fly | 28 | 3.37 |
24 | Kẹo | Candy | 28 | 3.37 |
25 | (Con) nhện | Spider | 34 | 3.56 |
26 | Tim | Heart | 35 | 3.58 |
27 | Râu | Beard | 38 | 3.66 |
28 | Cửa sổ | Window | 48 | 3.89 |
29 | (Con) lạc đà | Camel | 49 | 3.91 |
30 | (Quả) dâu/(trái) dâu | Strawberry | 52 | 3.97 |
31 | (Quả) táo/(trái) táo/(trái) bôm | Apple | 64 | 4.17 |
32 | Đinh/ốc | Nail/Screw | 68 | 4.23 |
33 | (Con) đại bàng | Eagle | 76 | 4.34 |
34 | Em bé | Baby | 78 | 4.37 |
35 | Não/óc | Brain | 81 | 4.41 |
36 | Điã/dĩa | Plate | 88 | 4.49 |
37 | Đồng hồ | Watch | 90 | 4.51 |
38 | Ngô/Bắp | Corn | 103 | 4.64 |
39 | Giường | Bed | 110 | 4.71 |
40 | (Con) lợn/(con) heo | Pig | 151 | 5.02 |
41 | (Con) ngựa | Horse | 153 | 5.04 |
42 | (Con) dao | Knife | 153 | 5.04 |
43 | Ly/cốc | Glass/Cup | 173 | 5.16 |
44 | (Con) cú | Owl | 213 | 5.37 |
45 | Máy bay | Airplane | 254 | 5.54 |
46 | Núi | Mountain | 272 | 5.61 |
47 | (Con) rắn/(con) tranh | Snake | 281 | 5.64 |
48 | Bánh (ngọt) | Cake | 292 | 5.68 |
49 | (Con) hổ/(con) cọp | Tiger | 364 | 5.90 |
50 | Thuyền/tàu | Ship/boat | 622 | 6.43 |
51 | Kéo | Scissors | 701 | 6.55 |
52 | Cây | Tree | 961 | 6.87 |
53 | (Con) kiến | Ant | 973 | 6.88 |
54 | Tất/vớ | Sock | 1366 | 7.22 |
55 | Xe/xe hơi/xe ô tô/ô tô | Car | 1539 | 7.34 |
56 | Tay | Hand | 1732 | 7.46 |
57 | Hoa/bông | Flower | 2045 | 7.62 |
58 | Cầu | Bridge | 2165 | 7.68 |
59 | Hình/tranh | Picture | 2204 | 7.70 |
60 | Nhà | House | 6645 | 8.80 |
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Pham, G.T., Snow, C.E. Beginning to read in Vietnamese: kindergarten precursors to first grade fluency and reading comprehension. Read Writ 34, 139–169 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10066-w
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10066-w
Keywords
- Early reading
- Phonological awareness
- Rapid automatized naming
- Reading acquisition
- Reading comprehension
- Reading development
- Reading fluency
- Transparent orthography