Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Development and validation of instruments to measure Portuguese third graders’ reasons to write and self-efficacy

  • Published:
Reading and Writing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There is a growing body of research showing that writers are influenced by motivation-related aspects. This study documents the translation process of the Portuguese version of the Writing Motivation Questionnaire and the construction of two scales to measure self-efficacy for handwriting and story writing. The psychometric properties of these instruments were then explored. Firstly, we examined the factorial structure of these instruments and tested measurement invariance across two independent samples of 202 and 193 third graders. Secondly, we evaluated the reliability of the scales and their convergent/discriminant validity by testing the relationship among them and with external correlates (viz., handwriting fluency and story length and quality). Thirdly, we tested instruments’ predictive validity by regressing story length and quality on motives to write, and on self-efficacy for handwriting and story writing. Findings confirmed the multidimensional nature of motivations to write and supported the validity and reliability of the scales developed. Regression analyses showed that competition- and grades-related had, respectively, a negative and positive contribution on story quality. Moreover, self-efficacy for story writing and handwriting contributed, respectively, to story length and quality, above and beyond handwriting fluency. This study provided evidence on the validity and reliability of the instruments under analysis, showing their usefulness to assess motivational dimensions in students as young as 8 years old. Findings join to current research emphasizing the importance of having valid and reliable tools to explore the role of motivation in young children’s writing.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
€32.70 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price includes VAT (Finland)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbott, R. D., & Berninger, V. W. (1993). Structural equation modeling of relationships among developmental skills and writing skills in primary- and intermediate-grade writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 478–508. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.85.3.478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, P. (1998). The nature of disciplinary and domain learning: The knowledge, interest, and strategic dimensions of learning from subject-matter text. In C. Hynd (Ed.), Learning from text across conceptual domains (pp. 55–76). Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alves, R. A., & Limpo, T. (2015). Progress in written language bursts, pauses, transcription, and written composition across schooling. Scientific Studies of Reading, 19, 374–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2015.1059838.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261–271. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berman, R. A., & Nir-Sagiv, B. (2007). Comparing narrative and expository text construction across adolescence: A developmental paradox. Discourse Processes, 43, 79–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/01638530709336894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., & Swanson, H. L. (1994). Modifying Hayes and Flower’s model of skilled writing to explain beginning and developing writing. In E. C. Butterfield (Ed.), Children’s writing: Toward a process theory of the development of skilled writing (Vol. 2, pp. 57–81). Greenwich: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boscolo, P., & Hidi, S. (2007). The multiple meanings of motivation to write. In S. Hidi & P. Boscolo (Eds.), Writing and motivation (pp. 1–14). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdin, B., & Fayol, M. (1994). Is written language production more difficult than oral language production? A working memory approach. International Journal of Psychology, 29, 591–620. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207599408248175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruning, R. H., Dempsey, M., Kauffman, D. F., McKim, C., & Zumbrunn, S. (2013). Examining dimensions of self-efficacy for writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105, 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029692.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruning, R. H., & Horn, C. (2000). Developing motivation to write. Educational Psychologist, 35, 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3501_4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buesco, H. C., Morais, J., Rocha, M. R., & Magalhães, V. F. (2015). Programas e metas-curriculares de Português do ensino básico [Programs and curricular goals of Portuguese language in basic education]. Lisboa: Ministério da Educação e da Ciência.

    Google Scholar 

  • Camping, A., Graham, S., Ng, C., Wilson, J., & Wdowin, J. (2020). Writing motivation of middle school emergent bilingual students. Manuscript in preparation.

  • Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 464–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, C. R. (1997). Holistic evaluation of writing. In C. R. Cooper & L. Odell (Eds.), Evaluating writing: Describing, measuring, judging (pp. 3–31). Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Smedt, F., Merchie, E., Barendse, M., Rosseel, Y., Van Keer, H., & De Naeghel, J. (2017). Cognitive and motivational challenges in writing: Studying the relation with writing performance across students’ gender and achievement level. Reading Research Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Smedt, F., Van Keer, H., & Merchie, E. (2016). Student, teacher and class-level correlates of Flemish late elementary school children’s writing performance. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 89, 833–868. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9590-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pusuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, T. J., Baguley, T., & Brunsden, V. (2014). From alpha to omega: A practical solution to the pervasive problem of internal consistency estimation. British Journal of Psychology, 105(3), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S. (2018a). A revised writer(s)-within-community model of writing. Educational Psychologist, 11, 258–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2018.1481406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S. (2018b). A writer(s) within community model of writing. In C. Bazerman, V. W. Berninger, D. Brandt, S. Graham, J. Langer, S. Murphy, P. Matsuda, D. Rowe, & M. Schleppegr (Eds.), The lifespan development of writing (pp. 272–325). Urbana: National Council of English.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Aitken, A., Harbaugh, G., Wilson, J., Wdowin, J., Ng, V., & Harris, K. R. (2020). Validation of the motivation for writing scale intermediate grade students. Manuscript in preparation.

  • Graham, S., Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Abbott, S. P., & Whitaker, D. (1997). Role of mechanics in composing of elementary school students: A new methodological approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 170–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.89.1.170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2018). An examination of the design principles underlying a self-regulated strategy development study. Journal of Writing Research, 10, 139–187. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2018.10.01.02.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Harris, K. R., Fishman, E. J., Houston, J., Wijekumar, K., Lei, P., et al. (2019). Writing skills, knowledge, motivation, and strategic behavior predict students’ persuasive writing performance in the context of robust writing instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 119, 487–510. https://doi.org/10.1086/701720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Hebert, M. (2011). It is more than just the message: Presentation effects in scoring writing. Focus on Exceptional Children, 44, 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Kiuhara, S. A., Harris, K. R., & Fishman, E. J. (2017). The relationship among strategic writing behavior, writing motivation, and writing performance with young, developing writers. The Elementary School Journal, 118, 82–104. https://doi.org/10.1086/693009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., & Harris, K. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 879–896. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 445–476. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (2009). Self-regulated strategy development in writing: Premises, evolution, and the future. British Journal of Educational Psychology Monograph Series, II(6), 113–135. https://doi.org/10.1348/978185409X422542.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K. R., Graham, S., & Mason, L. H. (2006). Improving the writing, knowledge, and motivation of struggling young writers: Effects of self-regulated strategy development with and without peer support. American Educational Research Journal, 43, 295–340. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312043002295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, J. R. (1996). A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 1–27). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kellogg, R. T. (1996). A model of working memory in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing (pp. 57–71). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, R. (2002). Writing in early adolescence: A review of the role of self-efficacy beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 14, 173–203. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014626805572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Limpo, T., & Alves, R. A. (2013). Modeling writing development: Contribution of transcription and self-regulation to Portuguese students’ text generation quality. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105, 401–413. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limpo, T., & Alves, R. A. (2017). Relating beliefs in writing skill malleability to writing performance: The mediating role of achievement goals and self-efficacy. Journal of Writing Research, 9, 97–125. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2017.09.02.01.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limpo, T., & Alves, R. A. (2018). Tailoring multicomponent writing interventions: The effects of coupling self-regulation and transcription training. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51, 381–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219417708170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limpo, T., & Graham, S. (2019). The role of handwriting instruction in writers’ education. British Journal of Educational Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2019.1692127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educational Psychology Review, 8, 299–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01464076.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 33–52. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oberski, D. (2014). lavaan.survey: An R package for complex survey analysis of structural equation models. Journal of Statistical Software, 57, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10656.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olive, T., Favart, M., Beauvais, C., & Beauvais, L. (2009). Children’s cognitive effort and fluency in writing: Effects of genre and of handwriting automatisation. Learning and Instruction, 19, 299–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.05.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olive, T., & Kellogg, R. T. (2002). Concurrent activation of high- and low-level production processes in written composition. Memory & Cognition, 30, 594–600. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194960.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, F. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement in writing: A review of the literature. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 19, 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560390143085.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, F., Miller, M. D., & Johnson, M. J. (1999). Gender differences in writing self-beliefs of elementary school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 50–61. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.91.1.50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, F., & Valiante, G. (1999). Grade level and gender differences in the writing self-beliefs of middle school students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24, 390–405. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1998.0995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, F., Valiante, G., & Cheong, Y. F. (2007). Writing self-efficacy and its relation to gender, writing motivation and writing competence: A developmental perspective. In S. Hidi & P. Boscolo (Eds.), Writing and motivation (pp. 141–159). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, G.-J. Y. (2014). The alpha and the omega of scale reliability and validity: Why and how to abandon Cronbach’s alpha and the route towards more comprehensive assessment of scale quality. The European Health Psychologist, 16, 56–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R. (2000). An achievement goal theory perspective on issues in motivation terminology, theory, and research. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 92–104. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R Development Core Team. (2005). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Revelle, W., & Zinbarg, R. E. (2009). Coefficients alpha, beta, omega and the glb: comments on Sijtsma. Psychometrika, 74, 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-008-9102-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rocha, R., Filipe, M., Magalhães, S., Graham, S., & Limpo, T. (2019). Reasons to write in Grade 6 and their association with writing quality. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2157. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders-Reio, J., Alexander, P. A., Reio, T. G., & Newman, I. (2014). Do students’ beliefs about writing relate to their writing self-efficacy, apprehension, and performance? Learning and Instruction, 33, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.02.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santangelo, T., & Graham, S. (2016). A comprehensive meta-analysis of handwriting instruction. Educational Psychological Review, 28, 225–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9335-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schiefele, U., & Schaffner, E. (2016). Factorial and construct validity of a new instrument for the assessment of reading motivation. Reading Research Quarterly, 51, 221–237. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schiefele, U., Schaffner, E., Möller, J., & Wigfield, A. (2012). Dimensions of reading motivation and their relation to rreading behavior and competence. Reading Research Quarterly, 47, 427–463. https://doi.org/10.1002/RRQ.030.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston: Pearon Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Urdan, T., & Schoenfelder, E. (2006). Classroom effects on student motivation: Goal structures, social relationships, and competence beliefs. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 331–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.04.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yilmaz Soylu, M., Zeleny, M. G., Zhao, R., Bruning, R. H., Dempsey, M. S., & Kauffman, D. F. (2017). Secondary students’ writing achievement goals: Assessing the mediating effects of mastery and performance goals on writing self-efficacy, affect, and writing achievement. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1406. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The preparation of this manuscript benefited from grants from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) and the COMPETE 2020 program (CPUP UID/PSI/00050/2013), and by the Operational Programme for Competitiveness and Internationalization, supported by FEDER and national funds allocated to FCT, under the M2S Project Grant (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-028404). We thank Vanessa Vigário, Céu Teixeira, and Mariana Carvalho for their support in collecting and coding the data.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 4200-392, Porto, Portugal

    Teresa Limpo, Marisa Filipe, Sofia Magalhães, Carolina Cordeiro, Andreia Veloso & São Luís Castro

  2. Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA

    Steve Graham

Authors
  1. Teresa Limpo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marisa Filipe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sofia Magalhães
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Carolina Cordeiro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Andreia Veloso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. São Luís Castro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Steve Graham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Teresa Limpo.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Limpo, T., Filipe, M., Magalhães, S. et al. Development and validation of instruments to measure Portuguese third graders’ reasons to write and self-efficacy. Read Writ 33, 2173–2204 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10039-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10039-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation