Writing instruction in first grade: an observational study

Abstract

As schools work to meet the ambitious Common Core State Standards in writing in the US, instructional approaches are likely to be examined (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). However, there is little research on the current state of instruction. This study was designed to provide a comprehensive analysis of first-grade writing instruction across 13 schools in one state in the US. Daylong observations were conducted four times during the year in 50 first-grade classrooms. Using a time-sampled, observational protocol, observers coded multiple dimensions of instruction, including grouping, instructional focus, teacher instructional activity, and student writing activity. Results revealed that writing was taught for less than 30 min a day on average, and instruction in skills or process writing was common. Most instruction was organized in whole-class settings with teachers either presenting information or asking students questions. Variability in the amount and focus of writing instruction and in student writing activity was examined at the classroom and school levels. A small number of classrooms and schools were identified with distinctive patterns in their approach to instruction and writing activity. Several moderate relationships were found between the writing instructional focus and the nature of student writing. These findings suggest that first-grade writing instruction is inconsistent across classrooms and schools and point to instructional implications for teachers and schools in the US.

Appendix: Description of codes used in the iSeeNCode classroom observation system for writing

Component	Code	Definition
Dimension 1: grouping	G	Note: grouping is coded for all grouping patterns observed in the class. Often there will be multiple patterns (e.g., teacher conferencing with a small group while other students work independently on their writing)
Whole class	W	Whole class is working together with no more than 2 students engaged in other activities in the classroom (e.g., teacher presentation, discussion, sharing writing)
Large group	L	Students are working together in groups of nine or more while other students are working on other activities (e.g., teacher is working with half the class on a lesson while others work at centers)
Small group	S	Students are working together in groups of 3–8 with some interaction among students related to the task (e.g., collaborative writing or learning tasks). If they are just sitting together but working entirely independently, code it as individual (e.g., independent work at centers). Small group can be either teacher-led or student-led
Pair	P	Students are working in pairs. Use same rules as for small groups
Individual	I	Students are working independently on tasks with incidental or occasional interaction (e.g. independent writing; practice exercises). They may be seated together but their work is not collaborative (e.g. teacher is working with a small group while rest of the class is working on their individual tasks. Code the rest of the class as individual if students are working independently)
Dimension 2: management of instruction	MI-	This set of codes is used to record who is managing or directing students’ attention on the learning activity on hand
Teacher/child-managed	T	The teacher has overall responsibility for directing the activity or managing the learning (e.g., lecture or presentation) with or without aid of computer but there may be substantial interaction with children (e.g., read aloud with discussion/participation; collaborative writing) Note: Some activities that might be considered child-centered activities, such as discussions about books, would be considered teacher-managed because the teacher is managing the learning
Child/peer-managed	C	Children are working independently or with peers and are primarily responsible for directing their own work. They may participate in cooperative learning activities but without direct teacher engagement (e.g., collaborative writing; paired reading). Note: Some activities that might be considered teacher-directed activities, such as completing worksheets, would be considered child-managed because the child is responsible for his or her own learning
Technology-managed	TX	Children are working with computers or audio or video materials that direct student learning (e.g., read-along tapes, computer-assisted instruction). Use of computer tools like word processors does not count as technology managed. Note: Here computers, audio or video materials are the major tool and vehicle for student learning. If a teacher uses smartboard or computer to assist teaching, this code does not apply
Dimension 3: broad instructional focus	F-	These codes are only used in whole-class settings or teacher-led small groups
Reading	R	Reading activities including both code-focused, including phonological awareness, and meaning-focused activities including comprehension of words or connected texts
Writing	W	Writing activities including both code-focused and meaning-focused writing activities. This code applies when students are focused on the mechanics of production even if they are not writing (e.g. spelling with plastic letters)
Oral language focus	O	Activities focused on developing students’ language ability without reading or writing words or text
Other academic	OA	Focus is academic but the instructional goal is not about literacy and students are not reading or writing (e.g., the code applies to math and science instruction). Calendar time would be counted as other academic only if it involves counting (numbers or days of the week, etc.) DO NOT CODE Dimension 4
Transitions	T	When students are moving from one activity to another. Teacher may be giving directions about where to sit or how to prepare. When a transition happens during a 3 min observation of an existing group then code the transition within this observation (i.e., do not code two separate observations- one for the group and then one for the observed transition). However, directions for how to do a task (e.g. complete a worksheet) would be instructional. If the entire 3-min block is a transition, use same directions as “Not Academics” (DO NOT CODE FURTHER)
Not academic	NA	None of the above applies; focus is not academic. (e.g. calendar time (may also be called morning meeting/morning calendar), discipline time, pledge of allegiance, snack time.) Note: Calendar time counts as not academic only if it does NOT involve counting or math-related activities. Stop coding
Dimension 4: specific writing focus		These codes are only used in whole-class settings or teacher-led small groups. More than one specific code is possible for an activity
Spelling	S	Spelling instruction or practice including work with a spell checker. Use for writing sentences with spelling words
Grammar or sentence formation	GS	Grammar instruction or practice focused on sentence formation, e.g., sentence combining, sentence formulas or parts of speech
Handwriting	W	Handwriting instruction or practice. Use for copying texts for handwriting practice
Punctuation, capitalization, other conventions	PC	Instruction or practice in punctuation, capitalization and other conventions for writing besides spelling and handwriting
Keyboarding, word processor operation	KW	Keyboarding or typing instruction, learning to use a word processor or other software for writing that focuses on transcription, e.g., assistive technology
Mixed skills	MS	Instruction or practice in more than one writing-skill areas. Including spelling, grammar, punctuation and/or capitalization. Technologies such as computers and smartboard can be used to assist instruction and student practice
Vocabulary	V	Activities that develop vocabulary with a focus on using them in writing. This can include activities before, during or after writing activities when teacher and students talk about word choice and word power
Independent writing. Code for narrative or informative	I-N I–I	Students individually write meaningful texts of any length or form (e.g., drawing a picture and labeling it; writing sentences to tell a story; writing a story; journal entries)
Collaborative writing. Code for narrative or informative	C-N C-I	Activities in which students work together (or teachers and students work together) to write a text, including joint writing and activities in which one student helps another with writing the text
Pre-writing	PW	Activities involving planning or pre-writing, including instruction and student practice e.g. story mapping
Revising	R	Revising including instruction and student practice. Revising is more meaning and content-based. It can also take the form of constructively participating in discussions about classmates’ writing, making changes to reflect the comments of classmate and the teacher
Editing	E	Editing, including instruction and student practice. Mainly include proofreading compositions to locate or correct mechanical errors. Editing centers more on checking the convention and mechanics of writing, such as spelling, capitalization and punctuation
Planning strategy	PS	Teacher or students name, explain, discuss, or model a planning strategy, e.g., brainstorming, mapping. This code goes beyond planning instruction by focusing on learning a strategy
Revising strategy	RS	Teacher or students name, explain, discuss, or model a revising, e.g., brainstorming, mapping. This code goes beyond planning instruction by focusing on learning a strategy
Editing strategy	E	Teacher or students name, explain, discuss or model an editing strategy. This code goes beyond planning instruction by focusing on learning a strategy
Sharing writing by students	SS	Activities involving reading or listening to written work by peers. Note: the student or the teacher can read the written work
Sharing writing by teacher	ST	Activities involving reading or listening to written work by teacher
Publishing	P	Preparing any form of printed work or electronic text to share finished written product with others
Assessment	A	Code along with other writing codes for activities where the primary focus is on assessment. The fact that a piece of writing will be assessed does not mean it should be coded here; use only if assessment is the main purpose of the activity or happens during the observation
Textual features	TF	Activities and or instruction related to discourse features of a text or the craft of writing. This may include parts of a text, such as openings, endings, the dedication, or whole text types such as letters or poems
Other writing	O	Activities that fit the broad writing code but none of the above specific codes
Dimension 5: materials
Textbook	T	School textbook (e.g., basal reader, science textbook) [Note name of textbook series in field notes]
Serial reader	SR	Magazines, weekly readers, newspapers, or other serial readers
Trade book: narrative or informative. Code for narrative or informative	TB-N TB-I	Trade books for children to read, including easy readers and predictable books. Narrative or informative
Teacher created text	TT	Texts written by teacher for students. If the text is handwritten and you cannot identify ut as coming from the curriculum, assume that it is a TT
Student created text	ST	Text/s written by a student or students
Teacher and student collaborative text	TST	Texts written collaboratively by teacher and students
Picture book	PB	Picture books designed to read to children. These are also trade books, but are usually more difficult so they are read to children
Pictures	PICS	Pictures not as part of a book
Blackboard/whiteboard	BW	Teacher or students are writing on BB or WB. This includes large one on the wall or smaller one used for individual use
Computer	CPU	Computer being used for any instructional activity other than accessing electronic texts, including word processing, keyboarding. Do not include teacher record-keeping
Video/TV/audio	AV	Smartboard, video, television, overhead projector, or audio resources used for instructional activity
Paper	PAP	Students are writing on single sheets of paper that may or may not have lines. There may also be an area for drawing a picture. This paper is loose leaf, that is, the paper is not bounded in a notebook or journal. Also, paper can include the big sheets of lined paper that teachers use to write on during instruction
Student journals	SJ	Students writing in essentially blank journals, not structured ‘journals’ that contain specific writing activities, which should be coded as workbooks. Journals are sheets of lined paper bound together
Workbooks/worksheets	WW	Workbooks and worksheets with exercises or lines and space for students to respond. The response may be any length (letter, word, sentence, connected text)
Charts/posters	CP	Charts, posters, and other teacher-created or published materials on the walls or the ones used for instruction on tables or in teacher’s hands, e.g., charts about writing process. Code only if used or referred to in the observation segment
Reference materials	REF	Reference materials, e.g., dictionary, encyclopedia
Assessment materials	ASM	Materials used for an assessment
Games	GO	Games, puzzles, manipulatives, or flashcards. Flashcards can be teacher made or store bought
Other	O	Other materials
None	N	None of the above apply
Dimension 6: teacher instructional actions		These codes are intended to capture the main mode of instruction and teacher-student and student–student interaction during each activity. It is possible for this dimension to be left blank. (i.e., if the grouping is individual-child managed- it is possible for there to have been no teacher action to code)
Presentation	P	Telling or giving students information or explaining something without any student response. For example, during a math test the teacher reads the problems aloud to the whole class but she does not provide any additional explanations or support
Question and answer	QA	Teacher asks students to respond to questions that draw on literal information or has a known answer with an aim to check students’ comprehension. This teacher-centered and teacher-managed instruction usually involves the IRE sequence (teacher Initiates the question, student Replies, teacher Evaluates the answer). Compared to Discussion, less independent thinking skills or strategies and less analytical skills are required in Q&A
Discussion	D	Discussion differs from presentation or Q&A because the conversation is more open-ended rather than the teacher-student–teacher pattern. Teachers may modify the content of the discussion based on students’ responses or if the teacher expands on a student’s comment and uses it to extend the conversation. May be teacher-led or student managed. Compared to Q&A, Discussion is more teacher-moderated and student-centered. The teacher’s role is to direct students in the conversation, to clarify and highlight the students’ good answers and use them to enhance the content of the lesson or to build and extend the conversation to another level. Students’ responses usually involve more independent thinking, show high-level skills and are more opinion-oriented and strategy-focused. In the first-grade classrooms where students comparatively have lower level of independent thinking and reasoning skills, discussion is more about reflection of the strategies learned or sharing of opinions relating to students’ personal life experience. Discussion may also consist of conversations that take place solely between the students with or without teacher input
Self-regulation	SR	Teacher talk addresses high-level concerns related to goal setting, self-instruction, self-monitoring, self-reinforcement and/or metacognition to enhance motivation and regulate students’ use of the target strategies in fulfilling learning tasks. This would include discussions about goals for instruction or a reflective conversation about what was learned. This is when teachers try to get students to think about the learning process. An example of this is when the teacher discusses the objectives of an upcoming lesson. Goals for instruction would include the teacher discussing the goals/objectives for a specific lesson OR reviewing those goals/objectives at the end of a lesson
Teacher modeling	M	Teacher demonstrates how to do some process, explaining the thought process, usually with think-alouds. It may be collaborative with student participation
Conferencing/coaching/scaffolding	CS	Teacher conferences with individual students or small groups. Involves checking students’ progress and supporting their work with guidance. Teacher’s role is to be a listener and a guide. It is frequently used in writing workshop when teacher works one-on-one with student, talking about their written texts and offering help to solve problems relating to writing. Scaffolding could present as the teacher actively providing support such as reading questions aloud and then providing an explanation for a word that the students do not understand
Checking/managing work	CM	Teacher checks work and monitors whether students are on task but without providing guidance beyond feedback. The teacher must be in the presence of the student(s). It is not considered checking or managing work if, for example, the teacher is working with a small group of students and appears to be periodically looking around the room at the other students. The teacher must actually get up and be in their physical space to be considered CK
Assessment	A	When teacher is giving an assessment (could be a DIBELS test to an individual or calling out spelling words to the whole class)
Other	O	When teacher action cannot be classified into one of the other categories. Examples include when a teacher leads a choral reading activity OR a teacher read aloud
Dimension 7: student activity		It is possible for this dimension to be left “blank” (i.e., there was nothing to code for this dimension)
Reading	R	Reading books or other texts. May include student-written texts
Reading—turn taking	RTT	Taking turns reading texts and listening to each other. This occurs frequently in developing student’s fluency esp. in small group setting
Reading chorally	RC	Reading with the teacher as a group or a student reading with the teacher
Oral response	OR	Oral response to question, prompt or discussion. Includes sounding out words to focus attention on how to spell them. If the teacher instructional mode “QA” is selected then it is likely the student response is oral response
Correct/copied written response	CCWR	Written response that is copied or with only one correct answer. The content of the writing is not created. It comes from some source such as the book or reading materials (e.g. spelling words, copying words from board, filling in blanks with expected answer)
Open written response	OWR	Written response with original content created by students. It could be limited to a single word (writing words that rhyme with “cat”), but it may be sentences or longer text where students generate ideas from their reading of a text or their experiences
Writing about text	W	Writing about text that was read. This may include writing summaries, an open-ended journal response about a text or describing some aspect of the text and may include completing story maps or graphic organizers. It may look like OWR but the crucial difference is that it will be focused on text
Drawing	D	Draws picture without using words
Manipulate	M	Manipulation of materials without oral or written response
Other	Oth	Other
Dimension 7.1: level of language for each activity		This dimension only appears if the coder indicates that students were reading or writing OR if the management of the group is Child/peer-managed (C) and the specific literacy focus codes were not applied
Individual letters	IL	Reading or writing individual letters or combinations of letters (e.g. digraphs, blends) that are not complete words. May include editing activities designed to correct spelling or responses that require only letters to complete a word
Individual words	IW	Reading or writing words in isolation
Sentence	S	Reading or writing a sentence (including phrases or clauses) of at least four words. Includes situations when a worksheet asks students to respond in individual sentences (e.g. each answer is a sentence) but the sentences are not connected as in connected text
Connected text	CT	Reading or writing multiple thematically related sentences in response to a prompt to elaborating on a topic, such as a story or other text. The sentences must be connected in that there is a relationship each sentence. Is not connected text if, for example, the student is writing sentences using vocabulary words and each sentence is independent of the others. However, if the sentences were part of a paragraph in which the students were making connections between the sentences this would then be connected text
Marking response	MR	When answers are provided in which the student must choose only from the provided responses such as multiple choice questions. This can also be applied if, for example, a student is called on to underline/circle letters/words/etc. in a presented sentence/paragraph in which the student may be instructed to identify needed corrections such as a misspelled word. MR does not apply to tasks in which the student response involves actively writing in the form of letters/words/sentences/connected text