Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Long-Term Effects of Staying Connected with Your Teen® on Drug Use Frequency at Age 20

  • Published:
Prevention Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Drug prevention interventions frequently target early adolescents in order to stop or delay initiation of substance use. However, the prevalence and frequency of drug use escalate and then peak during emerging adulthood, making it important to determine whether drug use prevention efforts in adolescence have lasting effects into adulthood. Additionally, given differences in drug use frequency between ethnic groups, intervention effects by race should be examined when possible. This study evaluates the efficacy of a family-focused prevention program, Staying Connected with Your Teen®, delivered to parents and teens in the 8th grade, on family stressors during 9th and 10th grades, 10th-grade drug use (as potential mediators), and drug use frequency at age 20. Families (N = 331; Black = 163, White = 168) were randomly assigned to three conditions: parent-adolescent group-administered (PA), self-administered with telephone support (SA), and no-treatment control (Haggerty et al. Prevention Science, 8: 249–260, 2007). The impact of the intervention was assessed using latent variable structural equation models. Age 20 drug use frequency was significantly higher among Whites than Blacks as expected. The PA intervention had direct effects on reducing drug use frequency for both Blacks and Whites. The SA intervention had an impact on family stressors during adolescence for Whites, but not for Blacks. Results suggest that both formats for delivery were modestly efficacious for Whites, but only direct delivery was modestly efficacious for Blacks. Given the substantial savings in cost of the self-administered program over the group-administered format, improving the efficacy of self-administered programming for Blacks is recommended.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Andrews, J. A., & Hops, H. (2010). The influence of peers on substance use. In L. M. Scheier (Ed.), Handbook of drug use etiology: Theory, methods, and empirical findings (pp. 403–420). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antony, J., Nelson, D., McMahon, R. J., Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (1996). Observer impressions. Retrieved from http://www.fasttrackproject.org

  • Aos, S., Lieb, R., Mayfield, J., Miller, M., & Pennucci, A. (2004). Benefits and costs of prevention and early intervention programs for youth. Olympia: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aos, S., Lee, S., Drake, E., Pennucci, A., Klima, T., Miller, M., & Burley, M. (2011). Return on investment: Evidence-based options to improve statewide outcomes—July 2011 update. #11-07-1201. Olympia: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bachman, J. G., O'Malley, P. M., Schulenberg, J. E., Johnston, L. D., Bryant, A. L., & Merline, A. C. (2002). The decline of substance use in young adulthood: Changes in social activities, roles, and beliefs. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, K. E., Ennett, S. T., Foshee, V. A., Pemberton, M., King, T. S., & Koch, G. G. (2000). Influence of a family-directed program on adolescent cigarette and alcohol cessation. Prevention Science, 1, 227–237.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, K. E., Foshee, V. A., Ennett, S. T., Pemberton, M., Hicks, K. A., King, T. S., & Koch, G. G. (2001). The influence of a family program on adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 604–610.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bontempo, D. E., & Hofer, S. M. (2006). Assessing factorial invariance in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. In A. D. Ong & M. van Dulmen (Eds.), Oxford handbook of methods in positive psychology (pp. 153–175). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., McBride Murry, V., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L., & Neubaum-Carlan, E. (2004). The Strong African American Families Program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75, 900–917.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Beach, S. R. H., Philibert, R. A., Chen, Y.-f., & McBride Murry, V. (2009). Prevention effects moderate the association of 5-HTTLPR and youth risk behavior initiation: Gene x environment hypotheses tested via a randomized prevention design. Child Development, 80, 645–661.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R. F., & Hawkins, J. D. (1996). The social development model: A theory of antisocial behavior. In J. D. Hawkins (Ed.), Delinquency and crime: Current theories (pp. 149–197). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R. F., Gainey, R. R., Fleming, C. B., Haggerty, K. P., & Johnson, N. O. (1999). An experimental intervention with families of substance abusers: One-year follow-up of the Focus on Families project. Addiction, 94, 241–254.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R. F., Berglund, M. L., Ryan, J. A. M., Lonczak, H. S., & Hawkins, J. D. (2004). Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 98–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R. F., Park, J., Harachi, T. W., Haggerty, K. P., Abbott, R. D., & Hawkins, J. D. (2005). Mediating the effects of poverty, gender, individual characteristics, and external constraints on antisocial behavior: A test of the social development model and implications for developmental life-course theory. In D. P. Farrington (Ed.), Advances in criminological theory (Integrated developmental and life-course theories of offending, Vol. 14, pp. 93–123). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R. F., Fagan, A. A., Gavin, L. E., Greenberg, M. T., Irwin, C. E., Ross, D. A., & Shek, D. T. L. (2012). Worldwide application of the prevention science research base in adolescent health. Lancet, 379, 1653–1664.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crnic, K. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (1990). Minor parenting stresses with young children. Child Development, 61, 1628–1637.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., & McMahon, R. J. (1998). Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 61–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., Gardner, K., Patterson, G. R., Reid, J., Spyrou, S., & Thibodeaux, S. (1987). The Family Process Code: A multidimentional system for observing family interactions. Retrieved from http://www.oslc.org/resources/codemanuals/familyprocesscode.pdf

  • Dishion, T. J., Burraston, B., & Li, F. (2003). Family management practices: Research design and measurement issues. In Z. Sloboda & W. Bukowski (Eds.), Handbook for drug abuse prevention: Theory, science, and practice (pp. 587–607). New York: Kluwer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eyberg, S. M., & Robinson, E. A. (1983). Dyadic Parent-child Interaction Coding System (DPICS): A manual. Psychological Documents, 13(2) Ms. No. 2582.

  • Fletcher, A. C., Steinberg, L., & Williams-Wheeler, M. (2004). Parental influences on adolescent problem behavior: Revisiting Stattin and Kerr. Child Development, 75, 781–796.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foxcroft, D. R., & Tsertsvadze, A. (2011). Universal family-based prevention programs for alcohol misuse in young people. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 9, CD009308.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P. H., Zelli, A., & Huesmann, L. (1996). The relation of family functioning to violence among inner-city minority youths. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 115–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, P. W., Model, K. E., Rydell, C. P., & Chiesa, J. (1998). Diverting children from a life of crime: Measuring costs and benefits. Santa Monica: Rand Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haggerty, K. P., Skinner, M. L., MacKenzie, E. P., & Catalano, R. F. (2007). A randomized trial of Parents Who Care: Effects on key outcomes at 24-month follow-up. Prevention Science, 8, 249–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haggerty, K. P., Skinner, M. L., McGlynn, A., Catalano, R. F., & Crutchfield, R. D. (2013). Parent and peer predictors of violent behavior of Black and White teens. Violence & Victims, 28, 145–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., & Weis, J. G. (1985). The social development model: An integrated approach to delinquency prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 6, 73–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance-abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64–105.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heinrichs, N., & Jensen-Doss, A. (2010). The effects of incentives on families' long-term outcome in a parenting program. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 705–712.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hops, H., Biglan, A., Tolman, A., Sherman, L., Arthur, J., Warner, P., & Osteen, V. (1990). Living in Familial Environments (LIFE) coding system: Training/procedures and reference manual for coders (Revth ed.). Eugene, OR: Oregon Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inc, S. P. S. S. (2001). SPSS (version 10.0). Chicago, IL: SPSS Incorporated.

    Google Scholar 

  • Institute of Medicine, National Research Council. (2011). The science of adolescent risk-taking: Workshop report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kacir, C. D., & Gordon, D. A. (1999). Parenting adolescents wisely: The effectiveness of an interactive videodisk parent training program in Appalachia. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 21, 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kogan, S. M., Brody, G. H., Molgaard, V. K., Grange, C. M., Oliver, D. A. H., Anderson, T. N., & Sperr, M. C. (2012). The Strong African American Families–Teen Trial: Rationale, design, engagement processes, and family-specific effects. Prevention Science, 13, 206–217.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Haggerty, K. P., Spoth, R., & Redmond, C. (2001). Preparing for the Drug Free Years: Session-specific effects of a universal parent-training intervention with rural families. Journal of Drug Education, 31, 47–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kumpfer, K. L., Alvarado, R., Smith, P., & Bellamy, N. (2002). Cultural sensitivity and adaptation in family-based prevention interventions. Prevention Science, 3, 241–246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindahl, K. M. (2001). Methodological issues in family observational research. In P. K. Kerig & K. M. Lindahl (Eds.), Family observational coding systems (pp. 23–32). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, F. M. (1965). A strong true-score theory, with applications. Psychometrika, 30, 239–270.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lundahl, B., Risser, H. J., & Lovejoy, M. C. (2006). A meta-analysis of parent training: Moderators and follow-up effects. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 86–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Markie-Dadds, C., & Sanders, M. R. (2006). Self-directed Triple P (Positive Parenting Program) for mothers with children at-risk of developing conduct problems. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 34, 259–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, W. A., Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Haggerty, K. P., & Spoth, R. L. (2003). Reducing adolescents' growth in substance use and delinquency: Randomized trial effects of a preventive parent-training intervention. Prevention Science, 4, 203–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGraw, K. O., & Wong, S. P. (1996). Forming inferences about some intraclass correlation coefficients. Psychological Methods, 1, 30–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, R. J. (1999). Parent training. In S. W. Rus & T. H. Ollendick (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapies with children and families (pp. 153–180). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, R. J., & Estes, A. M. (1993). Fast Track parent-child interaction task: Observational data collection manuals. Seattle: University of Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, R. J., & Forehand, R. L. (2005). Helping the noncompliant child: Family based treatment for oppositional behavior (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melby, J. N., Conger, R. D., Book, R., Rueter, M., Lucy, L., & Repinski, D. (1998). The Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales (5th ed.). Ames: Institute for Social and Behavioral Research, Iowa State University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Metzler, C. W., Sanders, M. R., Rusby, J. C., & Crowley, R. N. (2012). Using consumer preference information to increase the reach and impact of media-based parenting interventions in a public health approach to parenting support. Behavior Therapy, 43, 257–270.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moos, R., & Moos, B. (1983). Clinical applications of the Family Environment Scale. In E. Filsinger (Ed.), A sourcebook of marriage and family assessment (pp. 253–273). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, B. O. (1989). Latent variable modeling in heterogeneous populations. Psychometrica, 54, 557–585.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user's guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2003). Drug use among racial/ethnic minorities, revised (NIH Publication No.03-3888). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The U.S. Triple P System Population Trial. Prevention Science, 10, 1–12.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Romer, D., Stanton, B., Galbraith, J., Feigelman, S., Black, M. M., & Li, X. (1999). Parental influence on adolescent sexual behavior in high-poverty settings. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 153, 1055–1062.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rusby, J. C., Estes, A., & Dishion, T. J. (1991). Manual for the Interpersonal Process Code. Retrieved from http://www.oslc.org

  • Sanders, M. R., Turner, K. M. T., & Markie-Dadds, C. (2002). The development and dissemination of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A multilevel, evidence-based system of parenting and family support. Prevention Science, 3, 173–189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shonkoff, J. P., Boyce, W. T., & McEwen, B. S. (2009). Neuroscience, molecular biology, and the childhood roots of health disparities: Building a new framework for health promotion and disease prevention. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301, 2252–2259.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, M. L., Haggerty, K. P., & Catalano, R. F. (2009). Parental and peer influences on teen smoking: Are European and African American families different? Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11, 558–563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, M. L., MacKenzie, E. P., Haggerty, K. P., Hill, K. G., & Roberson, K. C. (2011). Observed parenting behavior with teens: Measurement invariance and predictive validity across race. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 252–260.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spagnolo, B., DeLoach, C. M., Haggerty, K. P., Hill, K., Weaver-Randall, K., Catalano, R. F., & Hawkins, J. D. (2002). The Social Development Model Observational Coding System. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, Social Development Research Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spoth, R. L., Kavanagh, K. A., & Dishion, T. J. (2002). Family-centered preventive intervention science: Toward benefits to larger populations of children, youth, and families. Prevention Science, 3, 145–152.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spoth, R., Redmond, C., Shin, C., & Azevedo, K. (2004). Brief family intervention effects on adolescent substance initiation: School-level growth curve analyses 6 years following baseline. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 535–542.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, J. M., & Muroff, J. R. (2002). Preventing substance abuse among African American children and youth: Race differences in risk factors exposure and vulnerability. Journal of Primary Prevention, 22, 235–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C., & Taylor, T. (2001). Nipping early risk factors in the bud: Preventing substance abuse, delinquency, and violence in adolescence through interventions targeted at young children (0 to 8 Years). Prevention Science, 2, 165–192.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, A. M., Hingson, R. W., Pan, I. J., & Yi, H. Y. (2011). Hospitalizations for alcohol and drug overdoses in young adults ages 18–24 in the United States, 1999–2008: Results from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72, 774–786.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whittaker, K. A., & Cowley, S. (2012). An effective programme is not enough: A review of factors associated with poor attendance and engagement with parenting support programmes. Children and Society, 26, 138–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., & Jackson, P. B. (2005). Social sources of racial disparities in health. Health Affairs, 24, 325–334.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winett, R. A., Anderson, E. S., Moore, J. F., Taylor, C. D., Hook, R. J., Webster, D. A., & Mundy, L. L. (1993). Efficacy of a home-based human immunodeficiency virus prevention video program for teens and parents. Health Education Quarterly, 20, 555–567.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Prevention as cumulative protection: Effects of early family support and education on chronic delinquency and its risks. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 28–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This paper was supported by Grant # RO1-DA 021737-04 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse. The content of this paper is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funding agency.

Conflict of Interest

Richard F. Catalano is a board member of Channing Bete Company, distributor of the Staying Connected with Your Teen® program which was tested as part of the study described in this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Washington, Seattle, USA

    Kevin P. Haggerty, Martie L. Skinner, Richard F. Catalano, Robert D. Abbott & Robert D. Crutchfield

  2. Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave. NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA, 98115, USA

    Kevin P. Haggerty, Martie L. Skinner & Richard F. Catalano

  3. Educational Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, USA

    Robert D. Abbott

  4. Department of Sociology, University of Washington, Seattle, USA

    Robert D. Crutchfield

Authors
  1. Kevin P. Haggerty
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Martie L. Skinner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Richard F. Catalano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Robert D. Abbott
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Robert D. Crutchfield
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kevin P. Haggerty.

Additional information

An earlier version of this paper was presented in May 2012 at the Society for Prevention Research 20th Annual Meeting in Washington, DC.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

ESM 1

(DOCX 16.2 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Haggerty, K.P., Skinner, M.L., Catalano, R.F. et al. Long-Term Effects of Staying Connected with Your Teen® on Drug Use Frequency at Age 20. Prev Sci 16, 538–549 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-014-0525-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-014-0525-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation