Skip to main content
Log in

Detrimental Effects of Performance-Related Pay in the Public Sector? On the Need for a Broader Theoretical Perspective

  • Published:
Public Organization Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Performance-related pay has been a key ingredient in New Public Management reforms. Nevertheless, the research presented here indicates some adverse effects of such incentives. These incentives may impair an initial motivation to work and change the norms that guide behavior. An issue which in particular has been given insufficient attention is fairness. Findings drawn from experimental economics supported by field studies demonstrate that perceived unfairness may have important negative effects on performance. The implication of a broader perspective in the analysis of performance-related pay in the public sector is that such a pay system, contrary to its aim, may have detrimental effects on performance.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, J. S. (1963). Toward an understanding of inequity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(5), 422–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akerlof, G. A., & Kranton, R. E. (2008). Identity, supervision, and work groups. The American Economic Review, 98(2), 212–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akerlof, G. A., & Yellen, J. L. (1990). The fair wage-effort hypothesis and unemployment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 105(2), 255–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, L., & Pallesen, T. (2008). “Not just for the money?” How financial incentives affect the number of publications at Danish research institutions. International Public Management Journal, 11(1), 28–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ariely, D., Bracha, A., & Meier, S. (2009). Doing good or doing well? image motivation and monetary incentives in behaving prosocially. The American Economic Review, 99(1), 544–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bénabou, R., & Tirole, J. (2003). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The Review of Economic Studies, 70(3), 489–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bénabou, R., & Tirole, J. (2006). Incentives and prosocial behavior. The American Economic Review, 96(5), 1652–1678.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertelli, A. M. (2006). Motivation crowding and the federal civil servant: evidence from the U.S. Internal Revenue Service. International Public Management Journal, 9(1), 3–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bewley, T. F. (1999). Why wages don’t fall during a recession. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blount, S. (1995). When social outcomes aren’t fair: the effect of causal attributions on preferences. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 63(2), 131–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, G. E., & Ockenfels, A. (2005). A stress test of fairness measures in models of social utility. Economic Theory, 25(4), 957–982.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, S., & Ratto, M. (2003). The role of incentives in the public sector: issues and evidence. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 19(2), 285–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camerer, C. (2003). Behavioral game theory: Experiments in strategic interaction. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, reward, and intrinsic motivation: a meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 64(3), 363–423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, J., Banko, K. M., & Pierce, W. D. (2001). Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: the myth continues. Behavior Analyst, 24(1), 1–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Camilleri, E., & Van Der Heijden, B. I. J. M. (2007). Organizational commitment, public service motivation, and performance within the public sector. Public Performance & Management Review, 31(2), 241–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, A. Fehr, E., Herrmann, B. & Schneider, F. (2011), Social comparison in the workplace: Evidence from a field experiment. IZA Discussion Paper No. 5550. (Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1778894.)

  • Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18(1), 105–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627–668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deckop, J., & Cirka, C. (2000). The risk and reward of a double-edged sword: effects of a merit pay program on intrinsic motivation. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 29(3), 400–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixit, A. (2002). Incentives and organizations in the public sector: an interpretive review. The Journal of Human Resources, 37(4), 696–727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberger, R., & Cameron, J. (1996). Detrimental effects of reward - reality or myth? American Psychologist, 51(11), 1153–1166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberger, R., Rhoades, L., & Cameron, J. (1999). Does pay for performance increase or decrease perceived self-determination and intrinsic motivation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(5), 1026–1040.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellingsen, T., & Johannesson, M. (2008). Pride and prejudice: the human side of incentive theory. The American Economic Review, 98(3), 990–1008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falk, A., & Kosfeld, M. (2006). The hidden costs of control. The American Economic Review, 96(5), 1611–1630.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falk, A., Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2008). Testing theories of fairness—Intentions matter. Games and Economic Behavior, 62(1), 287–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fehr, E., & Falk, A. (2002). Psychological foundations of incentives. European Economic Review, 46(4), 687–724.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fehr, E., & Gächter, S. (2000). Fairness and retaliation: the economics of reciprocity. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(3), 159–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fehr, E., & Schmidt, K. M. (2003). Theories of fairness and reciprocity: Evidence and economic applications. In M. Dewatripoint et al. (Eds.), Advances in economics and econometrics, 1 (pp. 208–257). Cambridge Books Online. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511610240.008.

  • Fehr, E., Goette, L., & Zehnder, C. (2009). A behavioral account of the labor market: the role of fairness concerns. Annual Review of Economics, 1, 355–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forest, V. (2008). Performance-related pay and work motivation: theoretical and empirical perspectives for the French civil service. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 74(2), 325–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frey, B. S. (1997). Not just for the money: An economic theory of personal motivation. Cheltenham; Brookfield: Edward Elgar Pub.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frey, B. S., & Jegen, R. (2001). Motivation crowding theory. Journal of Economic Surveys, 15(5), 589–611.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gächter, S., & Thöni, C. (2010). Social comparison and performance: experimental evidence on the fair wage–effort hypothesis. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 76(3), 531–543.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 331–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gagné, M., & Forest, J. (2008). The study of compensation systems through the lens of self-determination theory: reconciling 35 years of debate. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 225–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gailmard, S. (2010). Politics, principal-agent problems, and public service motivation. International Public Management Journal, 13(1), 35–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gneezy, U., & Rustichini, A. (2000a). Pay enough or don’t pay at all. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115(3), 791–810.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gneezy, U., & Rustichini, A. (2000b). A fine is a price. The Journal of Legal Studies, 29(1), 1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gneezy, U., Meier, S., & Rey-Biel, P. (2011). When and why incentives (don’t) work to modify behavior. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(4), 191–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, C., & Heywood, J. S. (2008). Does performance pay increase job satisfaction? Economica, 75(300), 710–728.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Güth, W., Schmittberger, R., & Schwarze, B. (1982). An experimental analysis of ultimatum bargaining. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3(4), 367–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich, C. J., & Marschke, G. (2010). Incentives and their dynamics in public sector performance management systems. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 29(1), 183–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1993; 1959). The motivation to work. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.

  • Holmstrom, B., & Milgrom, P. (1991). Multitask principal-agent analyses: Incentive contracts, asset ownership, and job design. Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization, 7(Special Issue), 24–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • House, R. J. (1971). A path goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16(3), 321–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • House, R. J. (1996). Path-goal theory of leadership: lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), 323–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J. L., & Thaler, R. (1986). Fairness as a constraint on profit seeking: entitlements in the market. The American Economic Review, 76(4), 728–741.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellough, J. E., & Nigro, L. G. (2002). Pay for performance in Georgia state government: employee perspectives on GeorgiaGain after 5 years. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 22(2), 146–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreps, D. (1997). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives. American Economic Review, 87(2), 359–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krueger, A., & Mas, A. (2004). Strikes, scabs, and tread separations: labor strife and the production of defective Bridgestone/firestone tires. Journal of Political Economy, 112(2), 253–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunz, A. H., & Pfaff, D. (2002). Agency theory, performance evaluation, and the hypothetical construct of intrinsic motivation. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 27(3), 275–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lah, T. J., & Perry, J. L. (2008). The diffusion of the civil service reform act of 1978 in OECD countries. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 28(3), 282–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langbein, L. (2010). Economics, public service motivation, and pay for performance: complements or substitutes? International Public Management Journal, 13(1), 9–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazear, E. P. (1989). Pay equality and industrial politics. Journal of Political Economy, 97(3), 561–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Grand, J. (2003). Motivation, agency, and public policy: Of knights and knaves, pawns and queens. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Le Grand, J. (2010). Knights and knaves return: public service motivation and the delivery of public services. International Public Management Journal, 13(1), 56–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, D., & Rupp, N. (2007). Retracting a gift: How does employee effort respond to wage reductions? Journal of Labor Economics, 25(4), 725–761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lepper, M. R., & Greene, D. (1978). The hidden costs of reward: New perspectives on the psychology of human motivation. Hillsdale: L. Erlbaum Associates. distributed by Halsted Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lepper, M., Henderlong, J., & Gingras, I. (1999). Understanding the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation - uses and abuses of meta-analysis: comment on Deci, Koestner, and Ryan. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 669–676.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsden, D., & French, S. (Ed.) (1998). What a performance: Performance related pay in the public services. London School of Economics and Political Science, Centre for Economic Performance.

  • Mas, A. (2006). Pay, reference points, and police performance. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 121(3), 783–821.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mas, A. (2008). Labour unrest and the quality of production: evidence from the construction equipment resale market. The Review of Economic Studies, 75(1), 229–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milkovich, G. T., & Wigdor, A. K. (Eds.). (1991). Pay for performance: Evaluating performance appraisal and merit pay. Washington, DC US: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moynihan, D. P. (2008). The normative model in decline? Public service motivation in the age of governance. In J. L. Perry & A. Hondeghem (Eds.), Motivation in public management: The call of public service (pp. 251–67). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moynihan, D. P. (2010). A workforce of cynics? the effects of contemporary reforms on public service motivation. International Public Management Journal, 13(1), 24–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murayama, K., Matsumoto, M., Izuma, K., & Matsumoto, K. (2010). Neural basis of the undermining effect of monetary reward on intrinsic motivation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(49), 20911–20916.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2005). Performance-related pay policies for government employees. Paris: OECD Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2008). The state of the public service. Paris: OECD Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, J. L., & Hondeghem, A. (2008). Motivation in public management: The call of public service. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, J. L., Engbers, T. A., & Jun, S. Y. (2009). Back to the future? performance-related pay, empirical research, and the perils of persistence. Public Administration Review, 69(1), 39–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinder, C. C. (2008). Work motivation in organizational behavior (2nd ed.). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance. Homewood, Ill.: R. D. Irwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prendergast, C. (1999). The provision of incentives in firms. Journal of Economic Literature, 37(1), 7–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanfey, A. G., Rilling, J. K., Aronson, J. A., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2003). The neural basis of economic decision-making in the ultimatum game. Science, 300(5626), 1755–1758.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sliwka, D. (2007). Trust as a signal of a social norm and the hidden costs of incentive schemes. American Economic Review, 97(3), 999–1012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. (2007). The impact of public service motives on work outcomes in Australia: a comparative multi-dimensional analysis. Public Administration, 85(4), 931–959.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. R. (2006). The federal civil service: the demise of an institution. Public Administration Review, 66(4), 496–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Titmuss, R. M. (1970). The gift relationship: From human blood to social policy. London: Allen & Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R., Pelletier, L., & Koestner, R. (2008). Reflections on self-determination theory. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 257–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weibel, A., Rost, K., & Osterloh, M. (2010). Pay for performance in the public sector-benefits and (hidden) costs. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 20(2), 387–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiersma, U. J. (1992). The effects of extrinsic rewards in intrinsic motivation: a meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 65(2), 101–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kirsten Bregn.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bregn, K. Detrimental Effects of Performance-Related Pay in the Public Sector? On the Need for a Broader Theoretical Perspective. Public Organiz Rev 13, 21–35 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-012-0191-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-012-0191-x

Keywords

Navigation