Abstract
Children of single mothers face higher rates of poverty than children in two-parent households in practically every affluent democracy. While this difference is widely acknowledged, there is little consensus regarding the causes of their poverty and, as a result, little consensus on the best way to address poverty among these children. Explanations include both individual-level, structural, and political explanations in four areas: family structure, labor force activity, economic performance, and welfare generosity. Previous research, however, tends to focus on only one of these four aspects at a time. Using data from the Luxembourg Income Study and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, spanning a period of 31 years and 25 countries, I test each of these four explanations, examining the effects on children in single mother households separately (n = 105,814) and children in both single mother households and children in two-parent households (n = 668,549), conducting random intercept between-within logistic regression analysis. Individual-level measures of family structure and labor market activity affect child poverty generally in the expected way. Taking advantage of the longitudinal data at the country level, I focus on within-country change of the structural and political variables. Within-country economic performance is not significantly related to poverty, but welfare generosity, namely family allowances, significantly reduce the odds of poverty. Further, while the effects of family allowance spending are similar for children in both single mother and two parent households, they are stronger for the former than the latter. Yet, the disadvantage of living in a single mother household persists.
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The values for the full sample are very similar.
These countries include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States.
LIS variable DHI.
In supplemental analyses, available in Appendix A, I include the individual-level measures of interest (family type and employment status) as contextual variables, averaged by country-years. The only variables that reach statical significance are % divorced mother (BE) and % mother unemployed (BE). However, because the primary interest is the within effects and because I do not discuss nor identify mechanisms for the influence of these variables, I do not include them in the main results.
Due to the small number of children living in “other” households and the variation within these categories, these children are dropped from the sample.
“Partnered” includes couples that are both married and in domestic partnerships. While these statuses may not be treated the same in all countries, it is not possible to distinguish between the two categories in all LIS surveys.
For children of single mothers, the primary-earner parent is straightforwardly the head of household. However, due to inconsistent coding of head of household between LIS surveys, for two-parent households, the head of household may be the primary-earner or could be someone else. Therefore, I assign the parent with the highest absolute value of labor income as the “primary-earner parent”. If the parents receive equal income, the older of the two is assigned. If they are the same age, a parent is randomly chosen.
Annual growth rate is calculated as (t−t-1)/t-1.
Because the number of individuals in each country’s sample varies in size, both the child weight utilized and the LIS normalized household weight are calculated to weight each country equally, providing representative samples by country, but normalizing each country-year’s sample size to 10,000.
Australia, Italy, Japan, and Sweden.
Three-level models were also tested for the single-mother only sample, as this more adequately reflects the clustering of the data (Schmidt-Catran & Fairbrother, 2016); however, three-level models for the full and two-parent only samples failed to converge for the fully conditional (intercept only) model. Results for the three-level single mother only models, reported in Appendix F, are consistent with the two-level models.
The typical poor child living in a single mother household is one in which the mother is divorced, is not in the labor force, has a low level of education, is over 24 years old, and in a household with two children.
This is a child who is living in a two-child household, with a lead-earning parent that works full-time, has a low level of education, and is over 24 years old.
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Acknowledgements
Many people have offered feedback on this research, but I would like to give special thanks to John D. Stephens and David Brady. I am also grateful for the guidance provided by Kieran Healy, Martin Ruef, and Steven Vaisey; and for her invaluable research assistance, I thank Catherine Muriuki. Piotr Paradowksi, Keonhi Son, Achim Edelmann, and Friedolin Merhout also provided key assistance in the final stages of revision. I also appreciate the editors and anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions. Finally, I thank Regina Baker for offering insightful feedback on the paper ahead of submission.
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See Tables 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.
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Bostic, A. Family, Work, Economy, or Social Policy: Examining Poverty Among Children of Single Mothers in Affluent Democracies Between 1985 and 2016. Popul Res Policy Rev 42, 59 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-023-09805-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-023-09805-y