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White Racial Resentment and Gender Attitudes: An Enduring Connection or an Artifact of the 2016 Election?

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Abstract

Several studies have demonstrated the importance of racial resentment and sexism in voting in the 2016 election. While this could be primarily a function of the particular electoral context, this study takes a broader look at a potential link between racist and sexist attitudes. At least since the election of Barack Obama, racial resentment has been found to increasingly correlate with a range of political views. But, we do not yet know whether this connection applies to gendered attitudes as well. Using American National Election Studies (ANES) data spanning five presidential election cycles (2004–2020), we explore whether racial and gendered views are correlated. Specifically, we examine the connection between racial resentment and three distinct gendered attitudes, including traditional gender roles, modern sexism, and beliefs about gender discrimination. We test two possibilities: whether a link between these views emerges as the result of racial priming by elites, consistent with “racial spillover,” or if racist and sexist attitudes are connected as part of the same underlying, system-justifying framework, meaning that this relationship endures over time, predating Obama’s 2008 election. We find strong evidence that, throughout the period under study, racial resentment is associated with all three gendered attitudes and appears to be part of a more comprehensive worldview rather than simply a “spillover” effect. Our analysis suggests that scholars should do more to examine the underlying attitudinal factors that influence both racism and sexism, as well as the enduring nature of this relationship over time.

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Data Availability

All data is publicly available through the American National Election Studies (ANES) Data Center, and replication code is available through the Political Behavior Dataverse, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/GWOSUS.

Notes

  1. This is not to say that Black Americans cannot be racially resentful (Kam & Burge 2018); rather, more research is needed on the dynamics of racial resentment within non-white communities.

  2. Specifically, the 2008 and 2012 versions of the ANES included an “oversample” of Black and Latino respondents, but other years in our analysis do not.

  3. Bush mentioned race in 2004 “less than any other president during a reelection year since 1964,” and often only in ambiguous terms (Angelo 2019, p. 154). Even coded racial appeals on topics like welfare and crime, which featured in the Reagan and Nixon elections (Mendelberg 2001), were largely absent in Bush’s campaign.

  4. This balancing act was especially salient in Obama’s “A More Perfect Union” speech about race, responding to controversial comments made by Chicago Reverend Jeremiah Wright.

  5. The ANES prior to 2004 does not include modern sexism measures, so we do not include prior surveys in this analysis.

  6. Higher values equate to more traditional attitudes. The average Cronbach alpha of the traditional values index across all five surveys is .502.

  7. Higher values equate to higher levels of modern sexist attitudes. The average Cronbach alpha of the modern sexist attitudes index across all five surveys is .612.

  8. The average Cronbach alpha of the racial resentment measure across all five surveys is .801.

  9. Evangelical was not a religious identification option in the 2004 ANES.

  10. See online Appendix Table A2 for complete results.

  11. In online Appendix Tables A6 and A7, we alternatively use feeling thermometer ratings of feminists (all years) and a hostile sexism measure (2016–2020). Racial resentment also consistently predicts these attitudes in the expected direction.

  12. The relationship between racial resentment and negative feeling thermometer ratings of feminists strengthened between 2004 and 2020. However, there was no change in the relationship between racial resentment and hostile sexism between 2016 and 2020 (See online Appendix Table A9).

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the participants of the 2021 Gender and Political Psychology (GPP) Summer Writing Working Group and the 2023 GPP Conference at UC-Riverside for their insightful feedback. In particular, we deeply appreciate the helpful suggestions we received from Mirya Holman, Christian Phillips, Heather Ondercin, Erin Heidt-Forsythe, and Melissa Michelson. All errors are our own.

Funding

A Small Research Grant from the APSA Women, Gender, and Politics Section provided partial financial support for this project.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, USA

    Michael G. Strawbridge

  2. Clark University, Worcester, USA

    Heather Silber Mohamed

  3. Saint Anselm College, Manchester, USA

    Jennifer Lucas

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  1. Michael G. Strawbridge
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  2. Heather Silber Mohamed
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  3. Jennifer Lucas
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Correspondence to Heather Silber Mohamed.

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Strawbridge, M.G., Silber Mohamed, H. & Lucas, J. White Racial Resentment and Gender Attitudes: An Enduring Connection or an Artifact of the 2016 Election?. Polit Behav (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-024-09970-6

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