Abstract
We investigated the influence of salinity (0, 25, 50, or 75 mM NaCl) on gas exchange and physiological characteristics of nine citrus rootstocks (Cleopatra mandarin, Carrizo citrange, Macrophylla, Iranian mandarin Bakraii, Rangpur lime, Rough lemon, Sour orange, Swingle citrumelo, and Trifoliate orange) in a greenhouse experiment. Total plant dry mass, total chlorophyll (Chl) content, and gas-exchange variables, such as net photosynthetic rate (P N), stomatal conductance (g s), intercellular CO2 concentration, were negatively affected by salinity. In addition, ion concentrations of Cl− and Na+ increased by salinity treatments. Salinity also increased Mg2+ content in roots and reduced Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations in leaves. The K+ concentration in leaves was enhanced at low salinity (25 mM NaCl), whereas it decreased with increasing salinity stress. Salinity caused a decline in K+ contents in roots. The rootstocks showed major differences in the extent of Cl− and Na+ accumulation in leaves and in their ability to maintain the internal concentrations of essential nutrients in response to different salinity. Therefore, in addition to inhibitory effects of high concentrations of Cl− and Na+, an imbalance of essential nutrients may also contribute to the reduction in gas exchange under saline conditions. Higher tolerance of rootstocks to salinity could be associated with the reduction of Cl− and Na+ uptake and transport to leaves, ability to keep higher Chl, g s, P N, and better maintenance of nutrient uptake even under high salinity. We found that Sour orange and Cleopatra mandarin were the rootstocks most tolerant to salinity of all nine studied. In addition, Trifoliate orange, Carrizo citrange, and Swingle citrumelo were the rootstocks most sensitive to salt stress followed by the Rough lemon and Macrophylla that showed a low-to-moderate tolerance, and Rangpur lime and Bakraii, with a moderate-to-high tolerance to high salinity.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- C a :
-
atmospheric CO2 concentration
- C i :
-
intercellular CO2 concentration
- Chl:
-
chlorophyll
- DM:
-
dry mass
- g s :
-
stomatal conductance
- P N :
-
net photosynthetic rate
References
Agrawal R., Gupta S., Gupta N. K. et al.: Effect of sodium chloride on gas exchange, antioxidative defense mechanism and ion accumulation in different cultivars of Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana L.). — Photosynthetica 51: 95–101, 2013.
Al-Yassin A.: Influence of salinity on citrus: A review paper. — J. Centr. Europ. Agric. 5: 263–272, 2004.
Al-Yassin A.: Review: adverse effects of salinity on citrus. — Int. J. Agric. Biol. 7: 668–680, 2005.
Anjum M.A.: Effect of NaCl concentration in irrigation water on growth and polyamine metabolism in two citrus rootstocks with different levels of salinity tolerance. — Acta Physiol. Plant. 30: 43–52, 2007.
Ashraf M.: Relationships between leaf gas exchange characteristics and growth of differently adapted populations of Blue panicgrass (Panicum antidotale Retz.) under salinity or waterlogging. — Plant Sci. 165: 69–75, 2003.
Ashraf M., Harris P.J.C.: Photosynthesis under stressful environments: An overview. — Photosynthetica 51: 163–190, 2013.
Bhatt M.J, Patel A.D, Bhatti P.M., Pandey A.N.: Effect of soil salinity on growth, water status and nutrient accumulation in seedlings of Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnacea). — J. Fruit Ornam. Plant Res. 16: 383–401, 2008.
Botella M.A., Martinez V., Pardines J. et al.: Salinity induced potassium deficiency in maize plant. — Plant Physiol. 150: 200–205, 1997.
Can H.Z., Anac D., Kukul Y. et al.: Alleviation of salinity stress by using potassium fertilization in Satsuma mandarin tress budded on two different rootstocks. — Acta Hortic. 618: 275–280, 2003.
Chaves M.M., Flexas J., Pinheiro C.: Photosynthesis under drought and salt stress: regulation mechanisms from whole plant to cell. — Ann. Bot.-London 103: 551–560, 2009.
Cramer G. R., Lynch J., Läuchli A. et al.: Influx of Na+, K+, and Ca2+, into roots of salt-stressed cotton seedlings. Effects of supplemental Ca2+. — Plant Physiol. 83: 510–516, 1987.
Farquhar G.D., Sharkey T.D.: Stomatal conductance and photosynthesis. — Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 33: 317–345, 1982.
García-Sánchez F., Syvertsen J.P.: Salinity tolerance of cleopatra mandarin and carrizo citrange citrus rootstock seedlings in is affected by CO2 enrichment during growth. — J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 131: 24–31, 2006.
García-Sánchez F., Carvajal M., Sanchez-Pina M.A. et al.: Salinity resistance of Citrus seedlings in relation to hydraulic conductance, plasma membrane ATPase and anatomy of the roots. — J. Plant Physiol. 156: 724–730, 2000.
García-Sánchez F., Jifon J.L., Garvajal M. et al.: Gas exchange, chlorophylle and nutrient content in relation to Na and Cl accumulation in sunburst mandarin grafted on different rootstock. — Plant Sci. 162: 705–712, 2002.
Gilliam J.W.: Rapid measurement of chlorine in plant material. — Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 35: 512–513, 1971.
Grieve C.M., Walker R.R.: Uptake and distribution of chloride, sodium and potassium ions in salt-treated citrus plants. — Aust. J. Agr. Res. 34: 133–143, 1983.
Hossain M.A., Hasanuzzaman M., Fujita M.: Coordinate induction of antioxidant defense and glyoxalase system by exogenous proline and glycinebetaine is correlated with salt tolerance in mung bean. — Front. Agr. China 5: 1–14, 2011.
Juan M., Rivero R.M., Romero L. et al.: Evaluation of some nutritional and biochemical indicators in selecting salt resistant tomato cultivars. — Environ. Exp. Bot. 54: 193–201, 2005.
Kaya C., Higgs D., Saltali K. et al.: Response of strawberry grown at high salinity and alkalinity to supplementary potassium. — J. Plant Nutr. 25: 1415–1427, 2002.
Lichtenthaler R.K.: Chlorophylls and carotenoids — pigments of photosynthetic biomembranes. — In: Colowick S.P., Kaplan N.O. (ed.): Methods in Enzymology. Vol. 148. Pp. 350–382. Academic Press, San Diego — New York — Berkeley — Boston — London — Sydney — Tokyo — Toronto 1987.
Liu F.L., Andersen M.N., Jacobsen S.E. et al.: Stomatal control and water use efficiency of soybean (Glycine max L.) during progressive soil drying. — Environ. Exp. Bot. 54: 33–40, 2005
Liu X.N., Baird W.V.: Identification of a novel gene, HAABRC5, from Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae) that is upregulated in response to drought, salinity, and abscisic acid. — Amer. J. Bot. 91: 184–191, 2004.
Mansfield T.A., Hetherington A.M., Atkinson C. J.: Some current aspects of stomatal physiology. — Annu. Rev. Plant Phys. 41: 55–75, 1990.
Marschner H., Cakmak I.: High light intensity enhances chlorosis and necrosis in leaves of zinc, potassium, and magnesium deficient bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) plant. — J. Plant Physiol. 134: 308–315, 1989.
Moya J.L., Gómez-Cadenas A., Primo-Millo E. et al.: Chloride absorption in salt-sensitive Carrizo citrange and salt-tolerant Cleopatra mandarin citrus rootstocks is linked to water use. — J. Exp. Bot. 54: 825–833, 2003.
Moya J.L., Primo-Millo E., Talon M.: Morphological factors determining salt tolerance in citrus seedlings: the shoot to root ratio modulates passive root uptake of chloride ions and their accumulation in leaves. — Plant Cell Environ. 22: 1425–1433, 1999.
Moya J.L., Tadeo F.R., Gómez-Cadenas A. et al.: Transmissible salt tolerance traits identified through reciprocal grafts between sensitive Carrizo and tolerant Cleopatra citrus genotypes. — J. Plant Physiol. 159: 991–998, 2002.
Ouerghi Z., Cornic G., Roudani M. et al.: Effect of NaCl on photosynthesis of two wheat species (Triticum durum and T. aestivum) differing in their sensitivity to salt stress. — J. Plant Physiol. 156: 335–340, 2000.
Paranychianakis N.V., Chartzoulakis K.S.: Irrigation of Mediterranean crops with saline water: from physiology to management practices. — Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 106: 171–187, 2005.
Qadar A.: Alleviation of sodicity stress on rice genotypes by phosphorus fertilization. — Plant Soil 203: 269–277, 1998.
Rengel Z.: The role of calcium in salt toxicity. — Plant Cell Environ. 15: 625–632, 1992.
Shahbaz M., Zia B.: Does exogenous application of glycinebetaine through rooting medium alter rice (Oryza sativa L.) mineral nutrient status under saline conditions? — J. Appl. Bot. Food Qual. 84: 54–60, 2011.
Storey R., Walker R.R.: Citrus and salinity. — Sci. Hortic.-Amsterdam 78: 39–81, 1999.
Sudhir P., Murthy S.D.S.: Effect of salt stress on basic processes of photosynthesis. — Photosynthetica 42: 481–486, 2004.
Tozlu I., Moore G.A., Guy C.L.: Effect of increasing NaCl concentration on stem elongation, dry mass production, and macro- and micro- nutrient accumulation in Poncirus trifoliate. — Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 27: 35–42, 2000.
Zekri M., Parsons L.R.: Salinity tolerance in citrus rootstock: Effect of salt on root and leaf mineral concentrations. — Plant Soil 147: 171–181, 1992.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Acknowledgements: Here we would like to thank the Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, for financial support of the research. The results presented in this paper are of M. Sc studies of the first author.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Khoshbakht, D., Ramin, A.A. & Baninasab, B. Effects of sodium chloride stress on gas exchange, chlorophyll content and nutrient concentrations of nine citrus rootstocks. Photosynthetica 53, 241–249 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11099-015-0098-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11099-015-0098-1