Abstract
The study of religion in Western psychology has an interesting history that provides many lessons for future attempts to understand the spiritual aspects of human experience. In the past, psychologists have typically operated from one of three paradigms in their study of religion: (1) hermeneutic–phenomenological, (2) positivistic naturalism, and (3) religious integration. Each of these paradigms has a number of important theoretical assumptions and a preferred set of methodologies that offer significant advantages and disadvantages. The paradigm of positivistic naturalism, with its emphasis on quantitative questionnaire methodology, has been the most influential but also the least helpful in generating new ideas for the psychological understanding of religion, particularly as it is practiced in non-Western contexts. A historical survey of the other competing paradigms offers many insights and practical suggestions about how research in the psychology of religion might proceed in the twenty-first century.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, J. (1970). Competent to counsel. Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and Reformed.
Almeder, R. (2007). Pragmatism and philosophy of science: A critical survey. International Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 21, 171–195.
Almond, P. (1984). Rudolf Otto: An introduction to his philosophical theology. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Armstrong, D. (1983). What is a law of nature? Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Armstrong, D. (1997). A world of states of affairs. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Aronson, H. (2004). Buddhist practice on Western ground: Reconciling eastern ideals and western psychology. Boston: Shambhala.
Audi, R. (2003). Epistemology: A contemporary introduction to the theory of knowledge (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 125–143.
Barrow, J. (1998). Impossibility: The limits of science and the science of limits. Oxford: Oxford University.
Baskin, T. W., & Enright, R. D. (2004). Intervention studies on forgiveness: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling and Development, 82, 79–90.
Belzen, J. A. (Ed.). (1997). Hermeneutical approaches in psychology of religion. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Benson, P., & Spilka, B. (1973). God image as a function of self-esteem and locus of control. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 12, 297–310.
Bernard, H. R. (2002). Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (3rd ed.). Walnut Creek: AltaMira.
Berry, J. W., Worthington, E. L., Jr., O’Connor, L. E., Parrott, L., III, & Wade, N. G. (2005). Forgivingness, vengeful rumination, and affective traits. Journal of Personality, 73, 183–225.
Bhaskar, R. (1989). Reclaiming reality: A critical introduction to contemporary philosophy. London: Verso.
Bhaskar, R. (2008). A realist theory of science. London: Verso. Original work published 1974.
Bishop, S. R. (2002). What do we really know about mindfulness-based stress reduction? Psychosomatic Medicine, 64, 71–84.
Bordogna, F. (2008). William James at the boundaries: Philosophy, science, and the geography of knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Boring, E. (1950). A history of experimental psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton.
Boyer, P. (2001). Religion explained: The evolutionary origins of religious thought. New York: Basic Books.
Bridgman, P. (1993). The logic of modern physics (reprint ed.). Salem: Ayer. Original work published 1927.
Brown, H. (2000). William James on radical empiricism and religion. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Browning, D. S. (1980). Pluralism and personality: William James and some contemporary cultures of psychology. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press.
Browning, D. S., & Cooper, T. D. (2004). Religious thought and the modern psychologies (2nd ed.). Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress.
Bruner, J. (1991). The narrative construction of reality. Critical Inquiry, 18, 1–21.
Capps, D. (1997). Men, religion, and melancholia: James, Otto, Jung, and Erikson. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Carnap, R. (1950). Empiricism, semantics and ontology. Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 4, 20–40.
Carnap, R. (1995). An introduction to the philosophy of science (M. Gardner, Ed.). New York: Dover. Original work published 1974.
Carrier, M. (1998). In defense of psychological laws. International Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 12, 217–232.
Carrier, M. (2000). How to pile up fundamental truths incessantly: On the prospect of reconciling scientific realism with unending progress. In M. Carrier, G. Massey, & L. Ruetsche (Eds.), Science at century’s end: Philosophical questions on the progress and limits of science (pp. 92–109). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh.
Chalmers, D. (2009). Ontological anti-realism. In D. Chalmers, D. Manley, & R. Wasserman (Eds.), Metametaphysics: New essays on the foundations of ontology (pp. 77–129). Oxford: Clarendon.
Clegg, J., & Slife, B. D. (2005). Epistemology and the hither side: A Levinasian account of relational knowing. European Journal of Psychotherapy, Counseling and Health, 7, 65–76.
Comte, A. (1998). Course on positive philosophy. In G. Lenzer (Ed.), Auguste Comte and positivism: The essential writings (pp. 71–306). New Brunswick: Transaction. Original work published 1830–1842.
Crowe, B. (2005). Heidegger and the prospect of a phenomenology of prayer. In B. Benson & N. Wirzba (Eds.), The phenomenology of prayer (pp. 119–133). Bronx: Fordham University.
de Boer, T. (1997). Inquiry into the foundations of a hermeneutical psychology: A critique of unpure reason. In J. Belzen (Ed.), Hermeneutical approaches in psychology of religion (pp. 35–49). Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Delaney, H., & DiClemente, C. (2004). Psychology’s roots: A brief history of the influence of Judeo-Christian perspectives. In W. Miller & H. Delaney (Eds.), Judeo-Christian perspectives on psychology (pp. 31–54). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Dilthey, W. (1989). Selected works, volume 1: Introduction to the human sciences (R. Makkreel & F. Rodi, Eds.). Princeton: Princeton University.
Drees, W. B. (1999). Religion, science, and naturalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dupre, J. (2004). The miracle of monism. In M. De Caro & D. Macarthur (Eds.), Naturalism in question (pp. 36–58). Cambridge: Harvard University.
Edie, J. (1987). William James and phenomenology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Ellis, G., & Stoeger, W. (1996). Introduction to general relativity and cosmology. In R. Russell, N. Murphy, & C. Isham (Eds.), Quantum cosmology and the laws of nature (2nd ed., pp. 35–50). Vatican City State: Vatican Observatory.
Engler, J. (1986). Therapeutic aims in psychotherapy and meditation. In K. Wilber, J. Engler, & D. Brown (Eds.), Transformations of consciousness: Conventional and contemplative perspectives on development (pp. 17–51). Boston: New Science Library.
Enright, R. (2001). Forgiveness is a choice: A step-by-step process for resolving anger and restoring hope. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Enright, R., & Fitzgibbons, R. (2000). Helping clients forgive: An empirical guide for resolving anger and restoring hope. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Epstein, M. (1995). Thoughts without a thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist perspective. New York: Basic Books.
Erikson, E. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history. New York: W. W. Norton.
Erikson, E. (1964). Insight and responsibility: Lectures on the ethical implications of psychoanalytical insight. New York: W.W. Norton.
Erikson, E. (1966). Ontogeny of ritualization. In R. Loewenstein, L. Newman, M. Schur, & A. Solnit (Eds.), Psychoanalysis—A general psychology: Essays in honor of Heinz Hartmann (pp. 601–621). New York: International Universities Press.
Erikson, E. (1996). The Galilean sayings and the sense of “I”. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 19, 291–337. Original work published 1981.
Exline, J. J., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Hill, P., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Forgiveness and justice: A research agenda for social and personality psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7, 337–348.
Exline, J. J., Baumeister, R. F., Bushman, B. J., Campbell, W. K., & Finkel, E. J. (2004). Too proud to let go: Narcissistic entitlement as a barrier to forgiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 894–912.
Falkenstrom, F. (2003). A Buddhist contribution to the psychoanalytic psychology of self. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 84, 1551–1568.
Feigl, H. (1949). Operationism and scientific method. In H. Feigl & W. Sellars (Eds.), Readings in philosophical analysis (pp. 498–509). New York: Appleton.
Feyerabend, P. (1993). Against method (3rd ed.). London: Verso.
Fodor, J. (1991). You can fool some of the people all of the time, everything else being equal: Hedged laws. Mind, 100, 19–34.
Gadamer, H. G. (1989). Truth and method (2nd rev. ed.) (J. Weinsheimer & D. Marshall, Trans.). New York: Continuum.
Gahde, U., & Stegmuller, W. (1986). An argument in favor of the Duehm-Quine thesis: From the structuralist point of view. In L. Hahn & P. Schilpp (Eds.), The philosophy of W. V. Quine (pp. 117–136). La Salle: Open Court.
Gale, R. (1999). The divided self of William James. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Garcia, J. (2003). Practical reason and its virtues. In M. DePaul & L. Zagzebski (Eds.), Intellectual virtue: Perspectives from ethics and epistemology (pp. 81–107). Oxford: Clarendon.
Gasser, G., & Stefan, M. (2007). The heavy burden of proof for ontological naturalism. In G. Gasser (Ed.), How successful is naturalism? (pp. 159–181). Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag.
Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. New York: Adeline.
Godfrey-Smith, P. (2003). Theory and reality: An introduction to the philosophy of science. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Goldstein, J., & Kornfield, J. (2001). Seeking the heart of wisdom: The path of insight meditation. Boston: Shambhala.
Gorsuch, R. (2002a). Integrating religion and spirituality? Westport: Praeger.
Gorsuch, R. (2002b). The pyramids of sciences and humanities: Implications for the search for religious “truth”. American Behavioral Scientist, 45, 1822–1838.
Guntrip, H. (1949). Psychology for ministers and social workers. London: Independent.
Guntrip, H. (1957). Psychotherapy and religion. New York: Harper and Brothers.
Guntrip, H. (1969). Religion in relation to personal integration. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 42, 323–333.
Harker, D. (2008). On the predilections for prediction. British Journal of the Philosophy of Science, 59, 429–453.
Hawley, K. (2006). Science as a guide to metaphysics? Synthese, 149, 451–470.
Heisig, J. W. (1999). Jung, Christianity, and Buddhism. Nazan Bulletin, 23, 74–104.
Helminiak, D. A. (1996). A scientific spirituality: The interface of psychology and theology. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 6, 1–19.
Hempel, C. (1968). Maximal specificity and lawlikeness in probabilistic explanation. Philosophy of Science, 35, 116–133.
Higgins-D’Alessandro, A., & Cecero, J. J. (2003). The social nature of saintliness and moral action: A view of William James’s Varieties in relation to St. Ignatius and Lawrence Kohlberg. Journal of Moral Education, 32, 357–371.
Hill, P., Pargament, K., Hood, R., McCullough, M., Swyers, J., Larson, D., et al. (2000). Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 30, 51–77.
Hood, R., Jr., Hill, P., & Spilka, B. (2009). The psychology of religion: An empirical approach (4th ed.). New York: Guilford.
Hookway, C. (2003). How to be a virtue epistemologist. In M. DePaul & L. Zagzebski (Eds.), Intellectual virtue: Perspectives from ethics and epistemology (pp. 183–202). Oxford: Clarendon.
Hopewell, J. (1987). Congregation: Stories and structures. Philadelphia: Fortress.
James, W. (1961). The varieties of religious experience. New York: Collier. Original work published 1902.
James, W. (1996a). Essays in radical empiricism. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Original work published 1912.
James, W. (1996b). A pluralistic universe. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Original work published 1909.
James, W. (2003). Pragmatism. New York: Barnes & Noble. Original work published 1907.
Jones, S. (1994). A constructive relationship for religion with the science and profession of psychology: Perhaps the boldest model yet. American Psychologist, 49, 184–199.
Jones, L. G. (1995). Embodying forgiveness: A theological analysis. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Jones, S. (1996). A constructive relationship for religion with the science and profession of psychology: Perhaps the boldest model yet. In E. Shafranske (Ed.), Religion and the clinical practice of psychology (pp. 113–147). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Jones, S. (2006). Integration: defending it, describing it, doing it. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 34, 252–259.
Jones, S., & Butman, R. (1991). Modern psychotherapies: A comprehensive Christian appraisal. Downers Grove: InterVarsity.
Kabat-Zinn, J., Lipworth, L., & Burney, R. (1985). The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 8, 163–190.
Kabat-Zinn, J., Massion, A., Kristeller, J., Peterson, L., Fletcher, K., Pbert, L., et al. (1992). Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 936–943.
Kamilar, S. (2002). A Buddhist psychology. In R. Olson (Ed.), Religious theories of personality and psychotherapy: East meets West (pp. 85–140). New York: Haworth.
Kirkpatrick, L. (2005). Attachment, evolution, and the psychology of religion. New York: Guilford.
Kistler, M. (2006). Causation and laws of nature. London: Routledge.
Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago. Original work published 1962.
Kutz, I., Borysenko, J. Z., & Benson, H. (1985). Meditation and psychotherapy: A rationale for the integration of dynamic psychotherapy, the relaxation response, and mindfulness meditation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1–8.
Lakatos, I. (1978). The methodology of scientific research programmes: Philosophical papers, volume I. (J. Worrall & G. Currie, Eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Leary, D. (2003). A profound and radical change: How William James inspired the reshaping of American psychology. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The anatomy of impact: What makes the great works of psychology great (pp. 19–42). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Leuba, J. (1912). A psychological study of religion: Its origin, function and future. New York: Macmillan.
Leuba, J. H. (1925). The psychology of religious mysticism. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
Lewis, D. (1973). Counterfactuals. Cambridge: Harvard University.
Lewis, D. (1986). Philosophical papers, Volume II. New York: Oxford University.
Lewis, D. (1999). Papers in metaphysics and epistemology. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Linehan, M. M. (1993a). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford.
Linehan, M. M. (1993b). Skills training manual for treating borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford.
Luyten, P., & Corveleyn, J. (2007). Attachment and religion: The need to leave our secure base: A comment on the discussion between Granqvist, Rizzuto, and Wulff. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 17, 81–97.
MacIntyre, A. (1977). Epistemological crises, dramatic narrative and the philosophy of science. Monist, 60, 453–472.
MacIntyre, A. (1984). After virtue: A study in moral theory (2nd ed.). Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.
Marechal, J. (2004). The psychology of the mystics. (A. Thorold, Trans.). Mineola: Dover. Original work published 1927.
Marlatt, G., Witkiewitz, K., Dillworth, T., Bowen, S., Parks, G., Macpherson, L., et al. (2004). Vipassana meditation as a treatment for alcohol and drug use disorders. In S. Hayes, V. Follette, & M. Linehan (Eds.), Mindfulness and acceptance: Expanding the cognitive-behavioral tradition (pp. 261–287). New York: Guilford.
Masis, K. V. (2002). American Zen and psychotherapy: An ongoing dialogue. In P. Young-Eisendrath & S. Muramoto (Eds.), Awakening and insight: Zen Buddhism and psychotherapy (pp. 149–171). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Mason, J. (2002). Qualitative researching (2nd ed.). London: Sage.
McCullough, M. E., Worthington, E., Jr., & Rachal, K. (1997). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 321–336.
McCullough, M. E., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (1999). Religion and the forgiving personality. Journal of Personality, 67, 1141–1164.
McCullough, M. E., Pargament, K., & Thoresen, C. (2000). The psychology of forgiveness: History, conceptual issues, and overview. In M. McCullough, K. Pargament, & C. Thoresen (Eds.), Forgiveness: Theory, research and practice (pp. 1–14). New York: Guilford.
McMinn, M., Mood, G., & McCormick, A. (2009). Integration in the classroom: Ten teaching strategies. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 37, 39–47.
Mikulas, W. (2007). Buddhism & Western psychology: Fundamentals of integration. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 14, 4–49.
Mittelstaedt, P., & Weingartner, P. (2005). Laws of nature. Berlin: Springer.
Mittelstrass, J. (2000). Nicholas Rescher on the limits of science. In M. Carrier, G. Massey, & L. Ruetsche (Eds.), Science at century’s end: Philosophical questions on the progress and limits of science (pp. 76–83). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh.
Morrison, M. (2000). Unity and the limits of science. In M. Carrier, G. Massey, & L. Ruetsche (Eds.), Science at century’s end: Philosophical questions on the progress and limits of science (pp. 217–233). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh.
Mounce, H. (1997). The two pragmatisms: From Peirce to Rorty. London: Routledge.
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Muramoto, S. (2002). Buddhism, religion and psychotherapy in the world today. In P. Young-Eisendrath & S. Muramoto (Eds.), Awakening and insight: Zen Buddhism and psychotherapy (pp. 15–29). East Sussex: Brunner-Routledge.
Murphy, N. (1998). Supervenience and nonreducibility of ethics to biology. In R. Russell, W. Stoeger, & F. Ayala (Eds.), Evolutionary and molecular biology: Scientific perspectives on divine action (pp. 463–490). Vatican City State: Vatican Observatory.
Murphy, N. (2005). Philosophical resources for integration. In A. Dueck & C. Lee (Eds.), Why psychology needs theology: A radical reformation perspective (pp. 3–27). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Murphy, N. (2007). Naturalism and theism as competing research traditions. In G. Gasser (Ed.), How successful is naturalism? (pp. 49–75). Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag.
Nagel, E. (1961). The structure of science: Problems in the logic of scientific explanation. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
Nagel, T. (1986). The view from nowhere. New York: Oxford University.
Nagel, E., & Newman, J. (2001). Godel’s proof. (Rev. ed.). New York: New York University.
Nelson, J. (2006). Missed opportunities in dialogue between psychology and religion. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 34, 205–216.
Nelson, J. (2009). Psychology, religion, and spirituality. New York: Springer.
Nelson, J., & Slife, B. D. (2006). Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 34(3), 191–192.
Nelson, J., & Slife, B. D. (in press). Theoretical and epistemological issues in the psychology of religion and spirituality. In L. Miller (Ed.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality. New York: Oxford.
O’Connor, K. (1997). Reconsidering the psychology of religion: Hermeneutical approaches in the contexts of research and debate. In J. Belzen (Ed.), Hermeneutical approaches in psychology of religion (pp. 85–108). Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Onda, A. (2002). The development of Buddhist psychology in modern Japan. In P. Young-Eisendrath & S. Muramoto (Eds.), Awakening and insight: Zen Buddhism and psychotherapy (pp. 242–251). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Otto, R. (1932). Mysticism east and west: A comparative analysis of the nature of mysticism. New York: Macmillan.
Otto, R. (1950). The idea of the holy (2nd ed.) (J. Harvey, Trans.). London: Oxford University Press. Original work published 1923.
Packer, M. (1985). Hermeneutic inquiry in the study of human conduct. American Psychologist, 40, 1081–1093.
Packer, M. (1988). Hermeneutic inquiry: A response to criticisms. American Psychologist, 43, 133–136.
Packer, M. J., & Addison, R. B. (Eds.). (1989). Entering the circle: Hermeneutic investigation in psychology. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Pargament, K. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research and practice. New York: Guilford.
Pargament, K. I. (2002). Is religion nothing but…? Explaining religion versus explaining religion away. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 239–244.
Payne, R. K. (2002). Locating Buddhism, locating psychology. In P. Young-Eisendrath & S. Muramoto (Eds.), Awakening and insight: Zen Buddhism and psychotherapy (pp. 172–186). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Peacocke, A. (1993). Theology for a scientific age: Being and becoming—natural, divine, and human. Minneapolis: Fortress.
Pickering, J. (1997). Selfhood is a process. In J. Pickering (Ed.), The authority of experience: Essays on Buddhism and psychology (pp. 152–169). Richmond: Curzon.
Piedmont, R. (2001). Spiritual transcendence and the scientific study of spirituality. Journal of Rehabilitation, 67, 4–14.
Piedmont, R. (2009). Editorial. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 1, 1–2.
Piedmont, R., Ciarrochi, J., Dy-Liacco, G., & Williams, J. (2009). The empirical and conceptual value of the spiritual transcendence and religious involvement scales for personality research. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 1, 162–179.
Pingleton, J. (1997). Why we don’t forgive: A biblical and object relations theoretical model for understanding failures in the forgiveness process. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 25, 403–413.
Polanyi, M. (1962). Personal knowledge: Towards a post-critical philosophy. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Popper, K. (2002). The logic of scientific discovery. London: Routledge. Original work published 1935.
Powlison, D. (2000). A biblical counseling view. In E. Johnson & S. Jones (Eds.), Psychology and Christianity (pp. 196–225). Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press.
Powlison, D. (2001). Questions at the crossroads: The care of souls and modern psychotherapies. In M. McMinn & T. Phillips (Eds.), Care for the soul: Exploring the intersection of psychology and theology (pp. 23–61). Downers Grove: InterVarsity.
Powlison, D. (2003). Seeing with new eyes: Counseling and the human condition through the lens of scripture. Phillipsburg: P&R.
Quine, W. V. (1953). From a logical point of view. Cambridge: Harvard University.
Ratner, C. (1997). Cultural psychology and cultural methodology: Theoretical and empirical considerations. New York: Plenum.
Rea, M. (2002). World without design: The ontological consequences of naturalism. Oxford: Clarendon.
Rescher, N. (1970). Scientific explanation. New York: Free.
Rescher, N. (1973). The coherence theory of truth. Oxford: Clarendon.
Rescher, N. (1982). Empirical inquiry. Totowa: Rowman and Littlefield.
Rescher, N. (1999). The limits of science. (Rev. ed.). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh.
Richards, P. S., & Bergin, A. (1997). A spiritual strategy for counseling and psychotherapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Richards, P. S., & Bergin, A. E. (2004). A theistic spiritual strategy for psychotherapy. In P. S. Richards & A. E. Bergin (Eds.), Casebook for a spiritual strategy in counseling and psychotherapy (pp. 1–32). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Richardson, F. (2006). Psychology and religion: hermeneutic reflections. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 34, 232–245.
Ricoeur, P. (1981). Hermeneutics and the human sciences: Essays on language, action, and interpretation (J. Thompson, Ed. & Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ricoeur, P. (1992). Oneself as another (K. Blamey, Trans.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Rizzuto, A.-M. (1974). Object relations and the formation of the image of God. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 47, 83–99.
Rizzuto, A.-M. (1979). The birth of the living God: A psychoanalytic study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Roberts, R. C. (1997a). Introduction: Christian psychology? In R. C. Roberts & M. R. Talbot (Eds.), Limning the psyche: Explorations in Christian psychology (pp. 1–19). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Roberts, R. C. (1997b). Parameters of a Christian psychology. In R. C. Roberts & M. R. Talbot (Eds.), Limning the psyche: Explorations in Christian psychology (pp. 74–101). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Rodgers, J. (2010). The epistemology of mathematical and statistical modeling: A quiet methodological revolution. American Psychologist, 65, 1–12.
Rosenbaum, R. (2003). Reflections on mirroring. In S. Segall (Ed.), Encountering Buddhism: Western psychology and Buddhist teachings (pp. 143–164). Albany: State University of New York Press.
Rubin, J. (1996). Psychotherapy and Buddhism: Toward an integration. New York: Plenum.
Rubin, J. (2003). Close encounters of a new kind: Toward an integration of psychoanalysis and Buddhism. In S. Segall (Ed.), Encountering Buddhism: Western psychology and Buddhist teachings (pp. 31–60). Albany: State University of New York Press.
Sandage, S., & Shults, F. L. (2007). Relational spirituality and transformation: A relational integration model. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 26, 261–269.
Schneider, H. (2000). Metaphors and theoretical terms: Problems in referring to the mental. In M. Carrier, G. Massey & L. Ruetsche (Eds.), Science at century’s end: Philosophical questions on the progress and limits of science (pp. 193–216). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh.
Segal, Z., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2001). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression. New York: Guilford.
Segal, Z., Teasdale, J., & Williams, J. (2004). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: Theoretical rationale and empirical status. In S. Hayes, V. Follette, & M. Linehan (Eds.), Mindfulness and acceptance: Expanding the cognitive-behavioral tradition (pp. 45–65). New York: Guilford.
Seigfried, C. H. (1990). William James’s radical reconstruction of philosophy. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Shapiro, D. H., Jr. (1992a). Adverse effects of meditation: A preliminary investigation of long-term meditators. International Journal of Psychosomatics, 39, 62–67.
Shapiro, D. H., Jr. (1992b). A preliminary study of long-term meditators: Goals, effects, religious orientation, cognitions. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 24, 23–39.
Slife, B. D. (2004). Taking practice seriously: Toward a relational ontology. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 24, 157–178.
Slife, B. D., & Williams, R. N. (1995). What's behind the research? Discovering hidden assumptions in the behavioral sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Slife, B. D., & Reber, J. S. (2009). Is there a pervasive implicit bias against theism in psychology? Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 29(2), 63–79.
Slife, B. D., Wiggins, B. J., & Graham, J. T. (2005). Avoiding an EST monopoly: Toward a pluralism of methods and philosophies. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 35, 83–97.
Smith, S. (2007). Causation and its relation to ‘causal laws.’ British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 58, 659–688.
Spilka, B., & Bridges, R. (1989). Theology and psychological theory: Psychological implications of some modern theologies. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 17, 343–351.
Spradley, J. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Spradley, J. (1980). Participant observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Strawson, P. F. (1985). Skepticism and naturalism: Some varieties: The Woodbridge lectures, 1983. London: Methuen.
Taylor, C. (2002). Varieties of religion today: William James revisited. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Taylor, C. (2007). A secular age. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Vande Kemp, H. (1996). Historical perspective: Religion and clinical psychology in America. In E. Shafranske (Ed.), Religion and the clinical practice of psychology (pp. 71–112). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
van de Vijver, F., & Leung, K. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
van Fraassen, B. (1980). The scientific image. Oxford: Clarendon.
van Fraassen, B. (1989). Laws and symmetry. Oxford: Clarendon.
van Fraassen, B. (2002). The empirical stance. New Haven: Yale University.
van Waning, A. (2002). A mindful self and beyond: Sharing in the ongoing dialogue of Buddhism and psychoanalysis. In P. Young-Eisendrath & S. Muramoto (Eds.), Awakening and insight: Zen Buddhism and psychotherapy (pp. 93–105). New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Vergote, A. (1997). Cause and meaning: Explanation and interpretation in the psychology of religion. In J. Belzen (Ed.), Hermeneutical approaches in psychology of religion (pp. 11–34). Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Vergote, A. (1998). Psychoanalysis, phenomenological anthropology and religion. In J. Corveleyn & D. Hutsebaut (Eds.). Leuven: Leuven University Press.
Vitz, P. (1977). Psychology as religion: The cult of self-worship. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
Wade, N. G., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2005). In search of a common core: A content analysis of interventions to promote forgiveness. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 42, 160–177.
Walker, D. F., & Gorsuch, R. L. (2002). Forgiveness within the Big Five personality model. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1127–1137.
Walker, D. F., & Gorsuch, R. L. (2004). Dimensions underlying sixteen models of forgiveness and reconciliation. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 32, 12–25.
Wallace, B., & Shapiro, S. (2006). Mental balance and well-being: Building bridges between Buddhism and Western psychology. American Psychologist, 61, 690–701.
Watts, F. (2004). Relating the psychology and theology of forgiveness. In F. Watts & L. Gulliford (Eds.), Forgiveness in context: Theology and psychology in creative dialogue (pp. 1–10). London: T & T Clark International.
Wegela, K. K. (2003). Nurturing the seeds of sanity: A Buddhist approach to psychotherapy. In S. Mijares (Ed.), Modern psychology and ancient wisdom: Psychological healing practices from the world’s religious traditions (pp. 17–42). New York: Haworth Integrative Healing Press.
Wendt, D., & Slife, B. D. (2009). Recent calls for Jamesian pluralism in the natural and social sciences: Will psychology heed the call? Journal of Mind and Behavior, 30(3), 185–204.
Westphal, M. (1999). Hermeneutics as epistemology. In J. Greco & E. Sosa (Eds.), The Blackwell guide to epistemology (pp. 415–435). Malden: Blackwell.
Willard, D. (1998). Spiritual disciplines, spiritual formation, and the restoration of the soul. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 26, 101–109.
Williams, J. M. G., & Swales, M. (2004). The use of mindfulness-based approaches for suicidal patients. Archives of Suicide Research, 8, 315–329.
Worthington, E. L., Jr., & Wade, N. G. (1999). The psychology of unforgiveness and forgiveness and implications for clinical practice. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 18, 385–418.
Wright, C., & Bechtel, W. (2007). Mechanisms and psychological explanation. In P. Thagard (Ed.), Philosophy of psychology and cognitive science (pp. 31–79). Amsterdam: Elsevier North-Holland.
Wulff, D. (1997). Psychology of religion: Classic & contemporary (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Yarhouse, M., Butman, R., & McRay, B. (2005). Modern psychopathologies: A comprehensive Christian appraisal. Downers Grove: InterVarsity.
Young-Eisendrath, P., & Muramoto, S. (2002). Continuing a conversation from East to West: Buddhism and psychotherapy. In P. Young-Eisendrath & S. Muramoto (Eds.), Awakening and insight: Zen Buddhism and psychotherapy (pp. 1–29). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Zagzebski, L. (1996). Virtues of the mind: An inquiry into the nature of virtue and the ethical foundations of knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Zinnbauer, B. J., Pargament, K. I., Cole, B., Rye, M. S., Butter, E. M., Belavich, T. G., et al. (1997). Religion and spirituality: Unfuzzing the fuzzy. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36, 549–564.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nelson, J.M. A History of Psychology of Religion in the West: Implications for Theory and Method. Pastoral Psychol 61, 685–710 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-011-0407-y
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-011-0407-y