Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents with Turner Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Mauger, Claire; Lancelot, Céline; Roy, Arnaud; Coutant, Régis; Cantisano, Nicole; Le Gall, Didier

doi:10.1007/s11065-018-9372-x

Review
Published: 27 April 2018

Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents with Turner Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Claire Mauger ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6896-7929¹,
Céline Lancelot¹,
Arnaud Roy^1,2,
Régis Coutant³,
Nicole Cantisano¹ &
Didier Le Gall^1,4

Neuropsychology Review volume 28, pages 188–215 (2018)Cite this article

1169 Accesses
14 Citations
Metrics details

Abstract

Turner syndrome (TS) is a genetic disorder, affecting 1/2500 to 1/3000 live female births, induced by partial or total deletion of one X chromosome. The neurocognitive profile of girls with TS is characterized by a normal Verbal IQ and weaknesses in visual-spatial, mathematics, and social cognitive domains. Executive functions (EFs) impairments have also been reported in these young patients. However, methodological differences across studies do not allow determination of which EFs are impaired and what is the magnitude of these impairments. The aim of this review was to clarify the EF profile of children and adolescents with TS. Sixteen samples, from thirteen studies, were included in the current meta-analysis. EFs measures used in these studies were classified into working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, or higher-order EFs tasks in accordance with Diamond’s model, Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168 (2013). Results confirmed that girls with TS had significant executive impairments with effect sizes varying from small (inhibitory control) to medium (cognitive flexibility) and large (working memory, higher-order EFs). Analyses by task revealed that cognitive inhibition may be more impaired than the other inhibitory control abilities. Heterogeneity across cognitive flexibility measures was also highlighted. Between-sample heterogeneity was observed for three tasks and the impact of participants’ characteristics on EFs was discussed. This meta-analysis confirms the necessity to assess, in patients living with TS, each EF by combining both visual and verbal tasks. Results also underline that, when studying girls with TS’ executive profile, it is important to explore the impact of moderator variables, such as IQ, parental socio-economic status, TS karyotype, psychiatric comorbidities, and hormonal treatment status.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

Anderson, V. A., Anderson, P., Northam, E., Jacobs, R., & Catroppa, C. (2001). Development of executive functions through late childhood and adolescence in an Australian sample. Developmental Neuropsychology, 20(1), 385–406. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2001_5.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ardila, A., Pineda, D., & Rosselli, M. (2000). Correlation between intelligence test scores and executive function measures. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15(1), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(98)00159-0.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., Matute, E., & Guajardo, S. (2005). The influence of the parents’ educational level on the development of executive functions. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(1), 539–560. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2801_5.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Assink, M., & Wibbelink, C. J. M. (2016). Fitting three-level meta-analytic models in R: A step-by-step tutorial. The Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 12(3), 154–174. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.12.3.p154.
Article Google Scholar
Austin, G., Groppe, K., & Elsner, B. (2014). The reciprocal relationship between executive function and theory of mind in middle childhood: A 1-year longitudinal perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 655. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00655.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Baker, J. M., & Reiss, A. L. (2016). A meta-analysis of math performance in turner syndrome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 58(2), 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.12961.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Bender, B. G., Linden, M. G., & Robinson, A. (1989). Verbal and spatial processing efficiency in 32 children with sex chromosome abnormalities. Pediatric Research, 25(6), 577–579. https://doi.org/10.1203/00006450-198906000-00004.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Bender, B. G., Linden, M. G., & Robinson, A. (1993). Neuropsychological impairment in 42 adolescents with sex chromosome abnormalities. American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics), 48(3), 169–173. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.1320480312.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Berg, E. A. (1948). A simple objective test for measuring flexibility in thinking. Journal of General Psychology, 39(1), 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1948.9918159.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81(6), 1641–1660. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Bishop, D. V. M., Canning, E., Elgar, K., Morris, E., Jacobs, P. A., & Skuse, D. H. (2000). Distinctive patterns of memory function in subgroups of females with turner syndrome: Evidence for imprinted loci on the X-chromosome affecting neurodevelopment. Neuropsychologia, 38(5), 712–721. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(99)00118-9.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Bondy, C. A. (2007). Care of girls and women with turner syndrome: A guideline of the turner syndrome study group. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 92(1), 10–25. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2006-1374.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester: Wiley.
Book Google Scholar
Borenstein, M., Higgins, J. P. T., Hedges, L. V., & Rothstein, H. R. (2017). Basics of meta-analysis: I² is not an absolute measure of heterogeneity. Research Synthesis Methods, 8(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1230.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Brankaer, C., Ghesquière, P., De Wel, A., Swillen, A., & De Smedt, B. (2016). Numerical magnitude processing impairments in genetic syndromes: A cross-syndrome comparison of turner and 22q11.2 deletion syndromes. Developmental Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12458.
Bray, S., Dunkin, B., Hong, D. S., & Reiss, A. L. (2011). Reduced functional connectivity during working memory in turner syndrome. Cerebral Cortex, 21(11), 2471–2481. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr017.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Bray, S., Hoeft, F., Hong, D. S., & Reiss, A. L. (2013). Aberrant functional network recruitment of posterior parietal cortex in turner syndrome. Human Brain Mapping, 34(12), 3117–3128. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.22131.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Buchanan, L., Pavlovic, J., & Rovet, J. (1998). A reexamination of the visuospatial deficit in turner syndrome: Contributions of working memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 14(2–3), 341–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565649809540715.
Article Google Scholar
Burgess, P. W. (1997). Theory and methodology in executive function research. In P. Rabbitt (Ed.), Theory and methodology of frontal and executive function (pp. 81–116). Hove: Psychology Press.
Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Breton, C. (2002). How specific is the relation between executive function and theory of mind? Contributions of inhibitory control and working memory. Infant and Child Development, 11(2), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.298.
Article Google Scholar
Cheung, M. W. L. (2015a). metaSEM: An R package for meta-analysis using structural equation modeling. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1521. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01521.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Cheung, M. W. L. (2015b). Meta-analysis: A structural equation modeling approach. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley.
Book Google Scholar
Cicerone, K. D., Dahlberg, C., Kalmar, K., Langenbahn, D. M., Malec, J. F., Bergquist, T. F., Felicetti, T., Giacino, J. T., Harley, J. P., Harrington, D. E., Herzog, J., Kneipp, S., Laatsch, L., & Morse, P. A. (2000). Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: Recommendations for clinical practice. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 81(12), 1596–1615. https://doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2000.19240.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Cochran, W. G. (1954). Some methods for strengthening the common χ² tests. Biometrics, 10(4), 417–451. https://doi.org/10.2307/3001616.
Article Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Collette, F., Hogge, M., Salmon, E., & Van der Linden, M. (2006). Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging. Neuroscience, 139(1), 209–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
R Core Team. (2016). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Retrieved from https://www.R-project.org/
Crider, A., & Pillai, A. (2016). Estrogen signaling as a therapeutic target in neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. Advance online publication, 360(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.116.237412.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
De Smedt, B., Janssen, R., Bouwens, K., Verschaffel, L., Boets, B., & Ghesquière, P. (2009). Working memory and individual differences in mathematics achievement: A longitudinal study from first grade to second grade. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103(2), 186–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2009.01.004.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Del Re, A. C. (2013). Compute.es: Compute effect sizes. Retrieved from http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/compute.es
Del Re, A. C., & Hoyt, W. T. (2014). MAd: Meta-analysis with mean differences. Retrieved from http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/MAd
Dennis, M., Francis, D. J., Cirino, P. T., Schachar, R., Barnes, M. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (2009). Why IQ is not a covariate in cognitive studies of neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(3), 331–343. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617709090481.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Ergür, A. T., Öcal, G., Berberoglu, M., Tekin, M., Kiliç, B. G., Aycan, Z., Kutlu, A., Adiyaman, P., Sıklar, Z., Akar, N., Sahin, A., & Akçayöz, D. (2008). Paternal X could relate to arithmetic function; study of cognitive function and parental origin of X chromosome in turner syndrome. Pediatrics International, 50(2), 172–174. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-200X.2008.02540.x.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Eslinger, P. J., & Grattan, L. M. (1993). Frontal lobe and frontal-striatal substrates for different forms of human cognitive flexibility. Neuropsychologia, 31(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(93)90077-D.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Floyd, R. G., Bergeron, R., Hamilton, G., & Parra, G. R. (2010). How do executive functions fit with the Cattell-horn-Carroll model? Some evidence from a joint factor analysis of the delis-Kaplan executive function system and the woodcock-Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities. Psychology in the Schools, 47(7), 721–738. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.
Article Google Scholar
Gates, N. J., & March, E. G. (2016). A neuropsychologist’s guide to undertaking a systematic review for publication: Making the most of PRISMA guidelines. Neuropsychology Review, 26(2), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-016-9318-0.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Knight, C., & Stegmann, Z. (2004). Working memory skills and educational attainment: Evidence from national curriculum assessments at 7 and 14 years of age. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.934.
Article Google Scholar
Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2002). Profiles of everyday executive function in acquired and developmental disorders. Child Neuropsychology, 8(2), 121–137. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.2.121.8727.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Goldstein, F. C., & Green, R. C. (1995). Assessment of problem solving and executive functions. In R. L. Mapou & J. Spector (Eds.), Clinical neuropsychological assessment (pp. 49–81). New-York: Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-9709-1_3.
Chapter Google Scholar
Grant, D. A., & Berg, E. A. (1948). A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to new responses in a weigl-type card-sorting problem. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38(4), 404–411. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0059831.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Green, T., Chromik, L. C., Mazaika, P. K., Fierro, K., Raman, M. M., Lazzeroni, L. C., Hong, D. S., & Reiss, A. L. (2014). Aberrant parietal cortex developmental trajectories in girls with turner syndrome and related visual-spatial cognitive development: A preliminary study. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 165(6), 531–540. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.32256.
Article Google Scholar
Green, T., Shrestha, S. B., Chromik, L. C., Rutledge, K., Pennington, B. F., Hong, D. S., & Reiss, A. L. (2015). Elucidating X chromosome influences on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and executive function. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 68, 217–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.06.021.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Greenberg, L. M., & Waldman, I. D. (1993). Developmental normative data on the test of variables of attention (T.O.V.A.). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(6), 1019-1030.
Haberecht, M. F., Menon, V., Warsofsky, I. S., White, C. D., Dyer-Friedman, J., Glover, G. H., Neely, E. K., & Reiss, A. L. (2001). Functional neuroanatomy of visuo-spatial working memory in turner syndrome. Human Brain Mapping, 14(2), 96–107.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Hackman, D. A., & Farah, M. J. (2009). Socioeconomic status and the developing brain. Trends in Cognitive Science, 13(2), 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.11.003.
Article Google Scholar
Han, G., Helm, J., Iucha, C., Zahn-Waxler, C., Hastings, P. D., & Klimes-Dougan, B. (2016). Are executive functioning deficits concurrently and predictively associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescents? Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 45(1), 44–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1041592.
Article Google Scholar
Hedges, L. V. (1981). Theory for Glass’s estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational Statistics, 6(2), 107–128. https://doi.org/10.2307/1164588.
Article Google Scholar
Higgins, J. P. T., & Green, S. (2011). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Retrieved from: http://handbook.cochrane.org
Hong, D., Kent, J. S., & Kesler, S. (2009). Cognitive profile of turner syndrome. Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 15(4), 270–278. https://doi.org/10.1002/ddrr.79.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Hong, D. S., Dunkin, B., & Reiss, A. L. (2011). Psychosocial functioning and social cognitive processing in girls with turner syndrome. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 32(7), 512–520. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e3182255301.
Article Google Scholar
Hong, D. S., Bray, S., Haas, B. W., Hoeft, F., & Reiss, A. L. (2014). Aberrant neurocognitive processing of fear in young girls with turner syndrome. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(3), 255–264. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss133.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kesler, S. R., Haberecht, M. F., Menon, V., Warsofsky, I. S., Dyer-Friedman, J., Neely, E. K., & Reiss, A. L. (2004). Functional neuroanatomy of spatial orientation processing in turner syndrome. Cerebral Cortex, 14(2), 174–180. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhg116.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kesler, S. R., Menon, V., & Reiss, A. L. (2006). Neurofunctional differences associated with arithmetic processing in turner syndrome. Cerebral Cortex, 16(6), 849–856. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhj028.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kiliç, B. G., Ergür, A. T., & Öcal, G. (2005). Depression, levels of anxiety and self-concept in girls with Turner's syndrome. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism, 18(11), 1111–1117. https://doi.org/10.1515/JPEM.2005.18.11.1111.
Article Google Scholar
Kirk, J. W., Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Kover, S. T. (2005). Assessing executive dysfunction in girls with fragile X or turner syndrome using the contingency naming test (CNT). Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(3), 755–777. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2803_2.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kuntsi, J., Skuse, D., Elgar, K., Morris, E., & Turner, C. (2000). Ring-X chromosomes: Their cognitive and behavioural phenotype. Annals of Human Genetics, 64(4), 295–305. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003480000008174.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Lahood, B. J., & Bacon, G. E. (1985). Cognitive abilities of adolescent Turner’s syndrome patients. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 6(5), 358–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0197-0070(85)80003-6.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Larizza, D., Maraschio; P., Bardoni, B., Calcaterra, V., Manfredi, P., & Gemma, A. (2002). Two sisters with 45,X karyotype: Influence of genomic imprinting on phenotype and cognitive profile. European Journal of Pediatrics, 161, 224–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-001-0913-5, Two sisters with 45,X karyotype: influence of genomic imprinting on phenotype and cognitive profile, 4.
Lee, K., Bull, R., & Ho, R. M. H. (2013). Developmental changes in executive functioning. Child Development, 84(6), 1933–1953. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12096.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Lehto, J. E., Juujärvi, P., Kooistra, L., & Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151003321164627.
Article Google Scholar
Lepage, J.-F., Dunkin, B., Hong, D. S., & Reiss, A. L. (2011). Contribution of executive functions to visuospatial difficulties in prepubertal girls with turner syndrome. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36(8), 988–1002. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2011.584356.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Lepage, J.-F., Hong, D. S., Hallmayer, J., & Reiss, A. L. (2012). Genomic imprinting effects on cognitive and social abilities in prepubertal girls with turner syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 97(3), E460–E464. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-2916.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Lepage, J.-F., Mazaika, P. K., Hong, D. S., Raman, M., & Reiss, A. L. (2013a). Cortical brain morphology in young, estrogen-naïve, and adolescent, estrogen-treated girls with turner syndrome. Cerebral Cortex, 23(9), 2159–2168. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhs195.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Lepage, J.-F., Dunkin, B., Hong, D. S., & Reiss, A. L. (2013b). Impact of cognitive profile on social functioning in prepubescent females with turner syndrome. Child Neuropsychology, 19(2), 161–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2011.647900.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Lepage, J.-F., Hong, D. S., Mazaika, P. K., Raman, M., Sheau, K., Marzelli, M. J., et al. (2013c). Genomic imprinting effects of the X-chromosome on brain morphology. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(19), 8567–8574. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5810-12.2013.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Lesniak-Karpiak, K., Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Ross, J. L. (2003). Behavioral assessment of social anxiety in females with turner or fragile X syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(1), 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022230504787.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Loesch, D. Z., Minh Bui, Q., Kelso, W., Huggins, R. M., Slater, H., Warne, G., et al. (2005). Effects of Turner’s syndrome and X-linked imprinting on cognitive status: Analysis based on pedigree data. Brain and Development, 27(7), 494–503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2004.12.009.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Mazzocco, M. M. M. (1998). A process approach to describing mathematics difficulties in girls with turner syndrome. Pediatrics, 102(3), 492–496.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Mazzocco, M. M. M. (2006). The cognitive phenotype of turner syndrome: Specific learning disabilities. International Congress Series, 1298, 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ics.2006.06.016.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Hanich, L. B. (2010). Math achievement; numerical processing, and executive functions in girls with turner syndrome: Do girls with turner syndrome have math learning disability? Learning and Individual Differences, 20(2), 70–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2009.10.011.
Article Google Scholar
McCauley, E., Kay, T., Ito, J., & Treder, R. (1987). The turner syndrome: Cognitive deficits, affective discrimination, and behavior problems. Child Development, 58(2), 464–473. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130523.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
McCauley, E., Ross, J. L., Kushner, H., & Cutler Jr., G. (1995). Self-esteem and behavior in girls with turner syndrome. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 16(2), 82–88.
Article CAS Google Scholar
McCauley, E., Feuillan, P., Kushner, H., & Ross, J. L. (2001). Psychosocial development in adolescents with turner syndrome. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 22(6), 360–365.
Article CAS Google Scholar
McGlone, J. (1985). Can spatial deficits in Turner’s syndrome be explained by focal CNS dysfunction or atypical speech lateralization? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 7(4), 375–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688638508401271.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
McGrew, K. S. (2009). CHC theory and the human cognitive abilities project: Standing on the shoulders of the giants of psychometric intelligence research. Intelligence, 37(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2008.08.004.
Article Google Scholar
Messer, S. B. (1976). Reflection-impulsivity: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 83(6), 1026–1052. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.83.6.1026.
Article Google Scholar
Messina, M. F., Zirilli, G., Civa, R., Rulli, I., Salzano, G., Aversa, T., & Valensize, M. (2007). Neurocognitive profile in Turner’s syndrome is not affected by growth impairment. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism, 20(6), 677–684. https://doi.org/10.1515/JPEM.2007.20.6.677.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & the PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 62(10), 1006–1012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.06.005.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Murphy, M. M., & Mazzocco, M. M. M. (2008). Mathematics learning disabilities in girls with fragile X or turner syndrome during late elementary school. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41(1), 29–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219407311038.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Murphy, M. M., Mazzocco, M. M. M., Gerner, G., & Henry, A. E. (2006). Mathematics learning disability in girls with turner syndrome or fragile X syndrome. Brain and Cognition, 61(2), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2005.12.014.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New-York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Google Scholar
Petrides, M., & Milner, B. (1982). Deficits on subject-ordered tasks after frontal and temporal-lobe lesions in man. Neuropsychologia, 20(3), 249–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(82)90100-2.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Quintero, A. I., Beaton, E. A., Harvey, D. J., Ross, J. L., & Simon, T. J. (2014). Common and specific impairments in attention functioning in girls with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion, fragile X or turner syndromes. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 6(5), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/1866-1955-6-5.
Article Google Scholar
Rae, C., Joy, P., Harasty, J., Kemp, A., Kuan, S., Christodoulou, J., Cowell, C. T., & Coltheart, M. (2004). Enlarged temporal lobes in turner syndrome: An X-chromosome effect? Cerebral Cortex, 14(2), 156–164. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhg114.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Reiss, A. L., Mazzocco, M. M. M., Greenlaw, R., Freund, L. S., & Ross, J. L. (1995). Neurodevelopmental effects of X monosomy: A volumetric imaging study. Annals of Neurology, 38(5), 731–738. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410380507.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Rhodes, M. G. (2004). Age-related differences in performance on the Wisconsin card sorting test: A meta-analytic review. Psychology and Aging, 19(3), 482–494. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.3.482.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Romans, S. M., Roeltgen, D. P., Kushner, H., & Ross, J. L. (1997). Executive function in girls with Turner’s syndrome. Developmental Neuropsychology, 13(1), 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565649709540666.
Article Google Scholar
Romans, S. M., Stefanatos, G., Roeltgen, D. P., Kushner, H., & Ross, J. L. (1998). Transition to young adulthood in Ullrich-turner syndrome: Neurodevelopmental changes. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 79(2), 140–147. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19980901)79:2<140::AID-AJMG10>3.0.CO;2-J.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ross, J. L., Stefanatos, G., Roeltgen, D., Kushner, H., & Cutler Jr., G. B. (1995). Ullrich-turner syndrome: Neurodevelopmental changes from childhood through adolescence. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 58(1), 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.1320580115.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ross, J. L., McCauley, E., Roeltgen, D., Long, L., Kushner, H., Feuillan, P., & Cutler Jr., G. B. (1996). Self-concept and behavior in adolescent girls with turner syndrome: Potential estrogen effects. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 81(3), 926–931. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.81.3.8772552.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ross, J. L., Kushner, H., & Zinn, A. R. (1997a). Discriminant analysis of the Ullrich-turner syndrome neurocognitive profile. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 72(3), 275–280. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19971031)72:3<275::AID-AJMG4>3.0.CO;2-Q.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ross, J. L., Feuillan, P., Kushner, H., Roeltgen, D., & Cutler Jr., G. B. (1997b). Absence of growth hormone effects on cognitive function in girls with turner syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 82(6), 1814–1817. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.82.6.4003.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ross, J. L., Roeltgen, D., Feuillan, P., Kushner, H., & Cutler Jr., G. B. (1998). Effects of estrogen on nonverbal processing speed and motor function in girls with Turner’s syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 83(9), 3198–3204. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.83.9.5087.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ross, J. L., Roeltgen, D., Feuillan, P., Kushner, H., & Cutler Jr., G. B. (2000). Use of estrogen in young girls with turner syndrome: Effect on memory. Neurology, 54(1), 164–170. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.54.1.164.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ross, J. L., Roeltgen, D., Stefanatos, G. A., Feuillan, P., Kushner, H., Bondy, C., & Cutler Jr., G. B. (2003). Androgen-responsive aspects of cognition in girls with turner syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 88(1), 292–296. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2002-021000.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ross, J. L., Mazzocco, M. M. M., Kushner, H., Kowal, K., Cutler Jr., G. B., & Roeltgen, D. (2009). Effects of treatment with oxandrolone for 4 years on the frequency of severe arithmetic learning disability in girls with turner syndrome. Journal of Pediatrics, 155(5), 714–720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.05.031.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Rovet, J. F. (1993). The psychoeducational characteristics of children with turner syndrome. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26(5), 333–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221949302600506.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Rovet, J., & Holland, J. (1993). Psychological aspects of the Canadian randomized controlled trial of human growth hormone and low-dose ethinyl oestradiol in children with turner syndrome. Hormone Research, 39(2), 60–64.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Rovet, J., Szekely, C., & Hockenberry, M.-N. (1994). Specific arithmetic calculation deficits in children with turner syndrome. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16(6), 820–839. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688639408402696.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Roy, A., Roulin, J.-L., Charbonnier, V., Allain, P., Fasotti, L., Barbarot, S., et al. (2010). Executive dysfunction in children with neurofibromatosis type 1: A study of action planning. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(06), 1056–1063. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135561771000086X.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Russell, H. F., Wallis, D., Mazzocco, M. M. M., Moshang, T., Zackai, E., Zinn, A. R.,. .. Muenke, M. (2006). Increased prevalence of ADHD in turner syndrome with no evidence of imprinting effects. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(9), 945–955. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsj106.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Saad, K., Al-Atram, A. A., Abdel Baseer, K. A., Ali, A. M., & El-Houfey, A. A. (2015). Assessment of quality of life, anxiety and depression in children with turner syndrome: A case-control study. American Journal of Neuroscience, 6(1), 8–12. https://doi.org/10.3844/amjnsp.2015.8.12.
Article Google Scholar
Sarsour, K., Sheridan, M., Jutte, D., Nuru-Jeter, A., Hinshaw, S., & Boyce, W. T. (2011). Family socioeconomic status and child executive functions: The roles of language, home environment, and single parenthood. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(01), 120–132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617710001335.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Scammacca, N., Roberts, G., & Stuebing, K. K. (2014). Meta-analysis with complex research designs: Dealing with dependence from multiple measures and multiple group comparisons. Review of Educational Research, 84(3), 328–364. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654313500826.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Skuse, D. H., James, R. S., Bishop, D. V. M., Coppin, B., Dalton, P., Aamodt-Leeper, G.,. .. Jacobs, P. A. (1997). Evidence from Turner’s syndrome of an imprinted X-linked locus affecting cognitive function. Nature, 387, 705–708. https://doi.org/10.1038/42706, 6634.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Sybert, V. P., & McCauley, E. (2004). Turner’s syndrome. The New England Journal of Medicine, 351(12), 1227–1238. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra030360.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Tamm, L., Menon, V., & Reiss, A. L. (2003). Abnormal prefrontal cortex function during response inhibition in turner syndrome: Functional magnetic resonance imaging evidence. Biological Psychiatry, 53(2), 107–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01488-9.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Temple, C. M. (2002). Oral fluency and narrative production in children with Turner’s syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 40(8), 1419–1427. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00201-9.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Temple, C. M., & Carney, R. A. (1995). Patterns of spatial functioning in Turner’s syndrome. Cortex, 31(1), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(13)80109-8.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Temple, C. M., Carney, R. A., & Mullarkey, S. (1996). Frontal lobe function and executive skills in children with Turner’s syndrome. Developmental Neuropsychology, 12(3), 343–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565649609540657.
Article Google Scholar
Ursache, A., & Raver, C. C. (2014). Trait and state anxiety: Relations to executive functioning in an at-risk sample. Cognition & Emotion, 28(5), 845–855. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.855173.
Article Google Scholar
Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conductiong meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1–48.
Article Google Scholar
Waber, D. P. (1979). Neuropsychological aspects of Turner’s syndrome. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 21, 58–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1979.tb01581.x.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Wagner, S., Müller, C., Helmreich, I., Huss, M., & Tadić, A. (2015). A meta-analysis of cognitive functions in children and adolescents with major depressive disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(1), 5–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0559-2.
Article Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2014). Wechsler intelligence scale for children-fifth edition. San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.
Google Scholar
Welsh, M. C., Satterlee-Cartmell, T., & Stine, M. (1999). Towers of Hanoi and London: Contribution of working memory and inhibition to performance. Brain and Cognition, 41(2), 231–242. https://doi.org/10.1006/brcg.1999.1123.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention/deficit hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1336–1346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Yamagata, B., Barnea-Goraly, N., Marzelli, M. J., Park, Y., Hong, D. S., Mimura, M., & Reiss, A. L. (2012). White matter aberrations in prepubertal estrogen-naive girls with monosomic turner syndrome. Cerebral Cortex, 22(12), 2761–2768. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr355.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Zhao, Q., Zhang, Z., Xie, S., Pan, H., Zhang, J., Gong, G., & Cui, Z. (2013). Cognitive impairment and gray/white matter volume abnormalities in pediatric patients with Turner syndrome presenting with various karyotypes. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism, 26(11–12), 1111–1121. https://doi.org/10.1515/jpem-2013-0145.
Article Google Scholar
Zook, N. A., Davalos, D. B., DeLosh, E. L., & Davis, H. P. (2004). Working memory, inhibition, and fluid intelligence as predictors of performance on tower of Hanoi and London tasks. Brain and Cognition, 56(3), 286–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2004.07.003.
Article PubMed Google Scholar

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by grants from the research program EnJeu[x] Enfance & Jeunesse financed by the region Pays de la Loire, France. Authors would like to thank Alexandre Laurent for his assistance in statistical analyses.

Author information

Affiliations

Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire (EA 4638), University of Angers, Angers, France
Claire Mauger, Céline Lancelot, Arnaud Roy, Nicole Cantisano & Didier Le Gall
Neurofibromatosis Clinic and Learning Disabilities Reference Center, Nantes University Hospital, Nantes, France
Arnaud Roy
Department of Pediatrics, Angers University Hospital, Angers, France
Régis Coutant
Department of Neurology, Angers University Hospital, Angers, France
Didier Le Gall

Authors

Claire Mauger
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Céline Lancelot
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Arnaud Roy
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Régis Coutant
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Nicole Cantisano
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Didier Le Gall
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Claire Mauger.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Appendix

Working Memory Task

Digit Span Subtest

Funnel Plot of the Digit Span Subtest

Leave-one-out method’s results:

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	Q	p-value
Romans et al. 1997 (7 to 9.9)	−0.92	[−1.10; −0.75]	−10.38	2.01	0.85
Romans et al. 1997 (10 to 12.5)	−0.94	[−1.11; −0.76]	−10.51	1.41	0.92
Romans et al. 1997 (12.5 to 16.9)	−0.90	[−1.08; −0.73]	−10.09	2.04	0.84
Romans et al. 1998	−0.91	[−1.09; −0.73]	−9.81	2.15	0.83
Ross et al. 1995 (younger)	−0.87	[−1.05; −0.70]	−9.86	0.76	0.98
Ross et al. 1995 (older)	−0.92	[−1.09; −0.75]	−10.52	2.06	0.84
Rovet et al. 1994	−0.91	[−1.09; −0.73]	−9.84	2.15	0.83

Inhibitory Control Tasks

Matching Familiar Figures Test

Funnel Plot of the Matching Familiar Figures Test (Correct Answers)

Leave-One-Out Method’s Results

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	p-value	Q	p-value	Tau²	I²
Romans et al. 1997 (7 to 9.9)	−0.39	[−0.67; −0.11]	−2.74	0.006	7.96	0.093	0.05	49.76
Romans et al. 1997 (10 to 12.5)	−0.43	[−0.66; −0.20]	−3.62	0.000	5.32	0.255	0.02	24.87
Romans et al. 1997 (12.5 to 16.9)	−0.33	[−0.64; −0.01]	−2.05	0.040	9.86	0.043	0.08	59.43
Romans et al. 1998	−0.25	[−0.48; −0.01]	−2.03	0.042	5.45	0.244	0.02	26.62
Ross et al. 1995 (younger)	−0.29	[−0.58; −0.01]	−1.92	0.055	8.70	0.069	0.06	54.03
Ross et al. 1995(older)	−0.33	[−0.63; −0.02]	−2.11	0.035	9.85	0.043	0.07	59.41

Funnel Plot of the Matching Familiar Figures Test (Response Time Variable)

Leave-One-Out Method’s Results

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	p-value	Q	p-value	Tau²	I²
Romans et al. 1997 (7 to 9.9)	0.15	[−0.05; 0.34]	1.44	0.150	5.85	0.321	0.01	14.58
Romans et al. 1997 (10 to 12.5)	0.20	[0.01; 0.38]	2.08	0.038	3.29	0.656	0.00	0.00
Romans et al. 1997 (12.5 to 16.9)	0.12	[−0.08; 0.32]	1.16	0.246	5.92	0.314	0.01	15.47
Romans et al. 1998	0.07	[−0.12; 0.26]	0.72	0.469	3.47	0.627	0.00	0.00
Ross et al. 1995 (younger)	0.10	[−0.09; 0.29]	1.04	0.298	5.15	0.398	0.00	2.91
Ross et al. 1995 (older)	0.14	[−0.06; 0.34]	1.37	0.169	5.97	0.309	0.01	16.27
Ross et al. 1998	0.16	[−0.03; 0.35]	1.67	0.095	5.35	0.375	0.00	6.51

Test of Variables of Attention

Funnel Plot of the Test of Variables of Attention (Commission Errors)

Leave-one-out method’s results:

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	Q	p-value	Tau²	I²
Romans et al. 1997 (7 to 9.9)	−0.49	[−0.69; −0.29]	−4.85	3.94	0.414	0.00	0.00
Romans et al. 1997 (10 to 12.5)	−0.42	[−0.63; −0.22]	−4.15	3.87	0.424	0.00	0.00
Romans et al. 1997 (12.5 to 16.9)	−0.49	[−0.70; −0.29]	−4.76	4.01	0.405	0.00	0.28
Romans et al. 1998	−0.44	[−0.66; −0.23]	−4.01	4.41	0.354	0.01	9.24
Ross et al. 1995 (younger)	−0.50	[−0.71; −0.30]	−4.90	3.48	0.480	0.00	0.00
Ross et al. 1995 (older)	−0.41	[−0.60; −0.21]	−4.09	2.28	0.684	0.00	0.00

Funnel Plot of the Test of Variables of Attention (Response Time Variable)

Leave-One-Out Method’s Results

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	p-value	Q	p-value	Tau²	I²
Romans et al. 1997 (7 to 9.9)	0.31	[0.02; 0.06]	2.38	0.017	6.74	0.151	0.03	40.63
Romans et al. 1997 (10 to 12.5)	0.32	[0.06; 0.59]	2.39	0.017	6.87	0.143	0.04	41.79
Romans et al. 1997 (12.5 to 16.9)	0.31	[0.05; 0.57]	2.30	0.021	6.60	0.158	0.03	39.42
Romans et al. 1998	0.33	[0.06; 0.60]	2.41	0.016	6.89	0.142	0.04	41.97
Ross et al. 1995 (younger)	0.42	[0.22; 0.62]	4.08	0.000	1.53	0.821	0.00	0.00
Ross et al. 1995 (older)	0.27	[0.06; 0.47]	2.52	0.011	4.53	0.340	0.01	11.62

Cognitive Flexibility Tasks

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

Funnel Plot of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

Leave-One-Out Method’s Results

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	p-value	Q	p-value	Tau²	I²
Romans et al. 1997 (7 to 9.9)	−0.21	[−0.62; 0.20]	−1.00	0.314	7.94	0.047	0.11	62.22
Romans et al. 1997 (10 to 12.5)	−0.06	[−0.37; 0.26]	−0.35	0.725	4.37	0.225	0.03	31.29
Romans et al. 1997 (12.5 to 16.9)	−0.30	[−0.63; 0.03]	−1.76	0.079	4.48	0.214	0.04	33.00
Romans et al. 1998	−0.09	[−0.53; 0.34]	−0.43	0.670	6.88	0.076	0.11	56.38
Temple et al. 1996	−0.22	[−0.62; 0.18]	−1.07	0.283	7.69	0.053	0.10	60.98

Phonemic Verbal Fluency Task

Funnel Plot of the Phonemic Verbal Fluency Task

Leave-One-Out Method’s Results

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	p-value	Q	p-value	Tau²	I²
Rae et al. 2004	−0.81	[−1.19; −0.42]	−4.10	0.000	14.4	0.025	0.15	58.49
Romans et al. 1997 (7 to 9.9)	−0.79	[−1.19; −0.39]	−3.85	0.000	15.7	0.016	0.17	61.68
Romans et al. 1997 (10 to 12.5)	−0.78	[−1.19; −0.37]	−3.73	0.000	16.3	0.012	0.18	63.10
Romans et al. 1997 (12.5 to 16.9)	−0.61	[−1.06; −0.16]	−2.65	0.010	18.9	0.004	0.24	68.26
Romans et al. 1998	−0.60	[−1.08; −0.11]	−2.41	0.016	17.0	0.009	0.27	64.72
Ross et al. 2000	−0.67	[−1.16; −0.18]	−2.67	0.008	19.8	0.003	0.29	69.69
Temple et al. 1996	−0.67	[−1.14; −0.20]	−2.79	0.005	20.0	0.002	0.26	70.00
Temple 2002	−0.58	[−0.99; −0.16]	−2.70	0.007	15.8	0.015	0.18	61.99

Semantic Verbal Fluency Task

Funnel Plot of the Semantic Verbal Fluency Task

Leave-One-Out Method’s Results

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	p-value	Q	p-value	Tau²	I²
Rae et al. 2004	−0.91	[−1.27; −0.55]	−5.00	0.000	1.11	0.291	0.01	10.16
Romans et al. 1998	−0.70	[−1.26; −0.14]	−2.45	0.014	0.28	0.598	0.00	0.00
Temple et al. 1996	−1.00	[−1.35; −0.66]	−5.71	0.000	0.04	0.850	0.00	0.00

Higher-Order Executive Function Tasks

Tower of Hanoi

Funnel Plot of the Tower of Hanoi (Score Variable)

Leave-One-Out Method’s Results

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	Q	p-value	Tau²	I²
Romans et al. 1997 (7 to 9.9)	−0.69	[−0.97; −0.42]	−4.93	1.77	0.413	0.00	0.00
Romans et al. 1997 (10 to 12.5)	−0.72	[−1.02; −0.43]	−4.88	1.32	0.517	0.00	0.00
Romans et al. 1997 (12.5 to 16.9)	−0.56	[−0.87; −0.25]	−3.59	0.58	0.747	0.00	0.00
Romans et al. 1998	−0.66	[−1.02; −0.30]	−3.60	2.15	0.341	0.01	7.05

Funnel Plot of the Tower of Hanoi (Average Time Variable)

Leave-One-Out Method’s Results

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	Q	p-value	Tau²	I²
Romans et al. 1997 (7 to 9.9)	−1.00	[−1.29; −0.72]	−6.94	1.46	0.482	0.00	0.00
Romans et al. 1997 (10 to 12.5)	−0.99	[−1.32; −0.65]	−5.80	2.36	0.307	0.01	15.29
Romans et al. 1997 (12.5 to 16.9)	−0.84	[−1.16; −0.53]	−5.25	1.23	0.542	0.00	0.00
Romans et al. 1998	−0.90	[−1.33; −0.47]	−4.10	2.84	0.242	0.04	29.47

Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure

Funnel Plot of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure

Leave-One-Out Method’s Results

	Estimate	95% [C.I.]	Z	Q	p-value
Reiss et al. 1995	−0.98	[−1.13; −0.83]	−12.57	4.56	0.601
Romans et al. 1997 (7 to 9.9)	−0.99	[−1.14; −0.83]	−12.51	4.37	0.627
Romans et al. 1997 (10 to 12.5)	−0.99	[−1.14; −0.83]	−12.46	4.41	0.621
Romans et al. 1997 (12.5 to 16.9)	−0.96	[−1.12; −0.81]	−12.16	4.33	0.632
Romans et al. 1998	−0.97	[−1.13; −0.81]	−11.89	4.57	0.601
Ross et al. 1995 (younger)	−0.98	[−1.14; −0.83]	−12.43	4.48	0.612
Ross et al. 1995 (older)	−0.94	[−1.09; −0.78]	−12.08	0.74	0.993
Ross et al. 1997a	−1.01	[−1.18; −0.83]	−11.36	4.17	0.653

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Mauger, C., Lancelot, C., Roy, A. et al. Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents with Turner Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Neuropsychol Rev 28, 188–215 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-018-9372-x

Download citation

Received: 23 March 2017
Accepted: 26 March 2018
Published: 27 April 2018
Issue Date: June 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-018-9372-x

Keywords

Turner syndrome
Working memory
Inhibition
Flexibility
Executive functions
Meta-analysis

Abstract

Access options

Buy single article

References

Acknowledgments

Author information

Affiliations

Corresponding author

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Appendix

Appendix

Working Memory Task

Inhibitory Control Tasks

Cognitive Flexibility Tasks

Higher-Order Executive Function Tasks

Rights and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Share this article

Keywords