Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Cognitive Sequelae of Blast-Induced Traumatic Brain Injury: Recovery and Rehabilitation

  • Review
  • Published:
Neuropsychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Blast-related traumatic brain injury (bTBI) poses a significant concern for military personnel engaged in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF). Given the highly stressful context in which such injury occurs, psychiatric comorbidities are common. This paper provides an overview of mild bTBI and discusses the cognitive sequelae and course of recovery typical of mild TBI (mTBI). Complicating factors that arise in the context of co-morbid posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are considered with regard to diagnosis and treatment. Relatively few studies have evaluated the efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation in civilian mTBI, but we discuss cognitive training approaches that hold promise for addressing mild impairments in executive function and memory, akin to those seen in OEF/OIF veterans with bTBI and PTSD. Further research is needed to address the patient and environmental characteristics associated with optimal treatment outcome.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexander, M. P. (1995). Mild traumatic brain injury: pathophysiology, natural history, and clinical management. Neurology, 45, 1253–1260.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association Task Force on DSM-IV. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armistead-Jehle, P. (2010). Symptom validity test performance in U.S. veterans referred for evaluation of mild TBI. Applied Neuropsychology, 17(1), 52–59. doi:10.1080/09084280903526182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belanger, H. G., Curtiss, G., Demery, J. A., Lebowitz, B. K., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (2005). Factors moderating neuropsychological outcomes following mild traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 11(3), 215–227. doi:10.1017/S1355617705050277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belanger, H. G., Proctor-Weber, Z., Kretzmer, T., Kim, M., French, L. M., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (2011). Symptom complaints following reports of blast versus non-blast mild TBI: does mechanism of injury matter? The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(5), 702–715. doi:10.1080/13854046.2011.566892.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belanger, H. G., Spiegel, E., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (2010). Neuropsychological performance following a history of multiple self-reported concussions: a meta-analysis. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 16(2), 262–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belanger, H. G., Vanderploeg, R. D., Curtiss, G., & Warden, D. L. (2007). Recent neuroimaging techniques in mild traumatic brain injury. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 19(1), 5–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Yishay, Y. (1985). Cognitive rehabilitation after brain injury: Growing pains of a field: PsycCritiques. (Vol. 30, pp. 683–684): American Psychological Association.

  • Bhattacharjee, Y. (2008). Shell shock revisited: solving the puzzle of blast trauma. Science, 319(5862), 406–408. doi:10.1126/science.319.5862.406.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bigler, E. D. (2003). Neurobiology and neuropathology underlie the neuropsychological deficits associated with traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18, 595–621.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bloomfield, I. L. M., Espie, C. A., & Evans, J. J. (2009). Do sleep difficulties exacerbate deficits in sustained attention following traumatic brain injury? Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 16(1), 17–25. doi:10.1017/S1355617709990798.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boggio, P. S., Rocha, M., Oliveira, M. O., Fecteau, S., Cohen, R. B., Campanha, C., et al. (2010). Noninvasive brain stimulation with high-frequency and low-intensity repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71(8), 992–999. doi:10.4088/JCP.08m04638blu.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bohnen, N., Jolles, J., & Twijnstra, A. (1992). Neuropsychological deficits in patients with persistent symptoms six months after mild head injury. Neurosurgery, 30, 692–696.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brenner, L. A. (2011). Neuropsychological and neuroimaging findings in traumatic brain injury and post-traumatic stress disorder. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 13(3), 311–323.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bruner, E. F. (2006). Military forces: What is the appropriate size for the United States? Washington, D.C: Congressional Research Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. (2008). Disentangling mild traumatic brain injury and stress reactions. The New England Journal of Medicine, 358(5), 525–527. doi:10.1056/NEJMe078235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. (2011). Post-traumatic stress disorder vs traumatic brain injury. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 13(3), 251–262.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R., & Hopwood, S. (2006). Commentary on “Trauma to the psyche and soma”. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 13(1), 17–23. doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2005.03.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R., Moulds, M., Guthrie, R., & Nixon, R. (2003). Treating acute stress disorder following mild traumatic brain injury. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(3), 585–587.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R., O’Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M., McFarlane, A. C., Clark, C. R., & Silove, D. (2010). The psychiatric sequelae of traumatic injury. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(3), 312–320. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09050617.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun, P. S., Wiley, M., Dennis, M. F., Means, M. K., Edinger, J. D., & Beckham, J. C. (2007). Objective evidence of sleep disturbance in women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(6), 1009–1018. doi:10.1002/jts.20255.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cardenas, V. A., Studholme, C., Gazdzinski, S., Durazzo, T. C., & Meyerhoff, D. J. (2007). Deformation-based morphometry of brain changes in alcohol dependence and abstinence. NeuroImage, 34(3), 879–887.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, K. F., Kehle, S., Meis, L. A., Greer, N., MacDonald, R., Rutks, I., et al. (2011). Prevalence, assessment, and treatment of mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review of the evidence. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 26(2), 103–115.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castriotta, R., Wilde, M., Lai, J., Atanasov, S., Masel, B., & Kuna, S. (2007). Prevalence and consequences of sleep disorders in traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 3(4), 349–356.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cernak, I. (2005). Penetrating and blast injury. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 23(3/4), 139–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cernak, I., & Noble-Haeusslein, L. J. (2010). Traumatic brain injury: an overview of pathobiology with emphasis on military populations. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 30(2), 255–266. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2009.203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cernak, I., Wang, Z., Jiang, J., Bian, X., & Savic, J. (2001a). Cognitive deficits following blast injury-induced neurotrauma: possible involvement of nitric oxide. Brain Injury, 15, 593–612.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cernak, I., Wang, Z., Jiang, J., Bian, X., & Savic, J. (2001b). Ultrastructural and functional characteristics of blast injury-induced neurotrauma. The Journal of Trauma, 50, 695–706.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chafi, M. S., Karami, G., & Ziejewski, M. (2010). Biomechanical assessment of brain dynamic responses due to blast pressure waves. Annals of Biomedical Engineering, 38(2), 490–504. doi:10.1007/s10439-009-9813-z.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chamelian, L., & Feinstein, A. (2006). The effect of major depression on subjective and objective cognitive deficits in mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 18, 33–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y., & Huang, W. (2011). Non-impact, blast-induced mild TBI and PTSD: concepts and caveats. Brain Injury, 25(7–8), 641–650. doi:10.3109/02699052.2011.580313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, A. J., Novakovic-Agopian, T., Nycum, T. J., Song, S., Turner, G. R., Hills, N. K., et al. (2011). Training of goal-directed attention regulation enhances control over neural processing for individuals with brain injury. Brain, 134(Pt 5), 1541–1554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chew, E., & Zafonte, R. D. (2009). Pharmacological management of neurobehavioral disorders following traumatic brain injury–a state-of-the-art review. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 46(6), 851–879.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicerone, K. D., Dahlberg, C., Malec, J. F., Langenbahn, D. M., Felicetti, T., Kneipp, S., et al. (2005). Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: updated review of the literature from 1998 through 2002. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86(8), 1681–1692.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicerone, K. D., Langenbahn, D. M., Braden, C., Malec, J. F., Kalmar, K., Fraas, M., et al. (2011). Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: updated review of the literature from 2003 through 2008. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 92(4), 519–530.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicerone, K. D., Levin, H. S., Malec, J., Stuss, D., & Whyte, J. (2006). Cognitive rehabilitation interventions for executive function: moving from bench to bedside in patients with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18(7), 1212–1222. doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.7.1212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicerone, K. D., Mott, T., Azulay, J., Sharlow-Galella, M. A., Ellmo, W. J., Paradise, S., et al. (2008). A randomized controlled trial of holistic neuropsychologic rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89(12), 2239–2249. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2008.06.017.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, B. E., Gima, K., Bertenthal, D., Kim, S., Marmar, C. R., & Seal, K. H. (2010). Mental health diagnoses and utilization of VA non-mental health medical services among returning Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 25(1), 18–24. doi:10.1007/s11606-009-1117-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, H., Kaplan, Z., Kotler, M., Kouperman, I., Moisa, R., & Grisaru, N. (2004). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in posttraumatic stress disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(3), 515–524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comper, P., Bisschop, S. M., Carnide, N., & Tricco, A. (2005). A systematic review of treatments for mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 19(11), 863–880.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Craik, F. I., Winocur, G., Palmer, H., Binns, M. A., Edwards, M., Bridges, K., et al. (2007). Cognitive rehabilitation in the elderly: effects on memory. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 13(1), 132–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowell, T. A., Kieffer, K. M., Siders, C. A., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (2002). Neuropsychological findings in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16, 310–321.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dash, P., Zhao, J., Hergenroeder, G., & Moore, A. (2010). Biomarkers for the diagnosis, prognosis, and evaluation of treatment efficacy for traumatic brain injury. Neurotherapeutics, 7(1), 100–114. doi:10.1016/j.nurt.2009.10.019.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davenport, N. D., Lim, K. O., Armstrong, M. T., & Sponheim, S. R. (2012). Diffuse and spatially variable white matter disruptions are associated with blast-related mild traumatic brain injury. NeuroImage, 59(3), 2017–2024. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.050.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Defense Centers of Excellence for Psychological Health and Traumatic Brain Injury and Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center (DCoE and DVBIC) (2009). Report of consensus conference on cognitive rehabilitation for mild traumatic brain injury. Paper presented at the Consensus Conference on Cognitive Rehabilitation for Mild Traumatic Brain Injury, Washington, DC, 27–28 April.

  • Demirtas-Tatlidede, A., Vahabzadeh-Hagh, A. M., Bernabeu, M., Tormos, J. M., & Pascual-Leone, A. (2011). Noninvasive brain stimulation in traumatic brain injury. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 2011, 17. doi:10.1097/HTR.0b013e318217df55.

    Google Scholar 

  • DePalma, R. G., Burris, D. G., Champion, H. R., & Hodgson, M. J. (2005). Blast injuries. The New England Journal of Medicine, 352, 1335–1342.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dikmen, S. S., Donovan, D. M., Loberg, T., Machamer, J. E., & Temkin, N. R. (1993). Alcohol use and its effects on neuropsychological outcome in head injury. Neuropsychology, 7, 296–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dikmen, S. S., Machamer, J. E., Fann, J. R., & Temkin, N. R. (2010). Rates of symptom reporting following traumatic brain injury. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 16(3), 401–411. doi:10.1017/S1355617710000196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dikmen, S. S., Temkin, N., & Armsden, G. (1989). Neuropsychological recovery: relationship to psychosocial functioning and postconcussional complaints. In H. S. Levin, H. M. Eisenberg, & A. L. Benton (Eds.), Mild head injury (pp. 229–244). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eccleston, C. (1994). Chronic pain and attention: a cognitive approach. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, 535–547.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ettlin, T. M., Kischka, U., Reichmann, S., Radii, E. W., Heim, S., Wengen, D., et al. (1992). Cerebral symptoms after whiplash injury of the neck: a prospective clinical and neuropsychological study of whiplash injury. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 55, 943–948.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ewing, R., McCarthy, D., & Gronwall, D. (1980). Persisting effects of minor head injury observable during hypoxic stress. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 2, 147–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fann, J. R., Burington, B., Leonetti, A., Jaffe, K., Katon, W. J., & Thompson, R. S. (2004). Psychiatric illness following traumatic brain injury in an adult health maintenance organization population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(1), 53–61. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.1.53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, S., Cantor, J., & Ashman, T. (2008). Traumatic brain injury: future assessment tools and treatment prospects. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 4(5), 877–892.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fortier, C., Leritz, E., Salat, D., Venne, J., Maksimovskiy, A., Williams, V., et al. (2011). Reduced cortical thickness in abstinent alcoholics and association with alcoholic behavior. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 35(12), 2193–2201. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01576.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedland, J. F., & Dawson, D. R. (2001). Function after motor vehicle accidents: a prospective study of mild head injury and posttraumatic stress. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189, 426–434.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Galarneau, M. R., Woodruff, S. I., Dye, J. L., Mohrle, C. R., & Wade, A. L. (2008). Traumatic brain injury during operation Iraqi freedom: findings from the United States Navy-Marine Corps Combat Trauma Registry. Journal of Neurosurgery, 108(5), 950–957. doi:10.3171/JNS/2008/108/5/0950.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gavett, B. E., Cantu, R. C., Shenton, M., Lin, A. P., Nowinski, C. J., McKee, A. C., et al. (2011). Clinical appraisal of chronic traumatic encephalopathy: current perspectives and future directions. Current Opinion in Neurology, 24(6), 525–531.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gazdzinski, S., Durazzo, T. C., Mon, A., Yeh, P. H., & Meyerhoff, D. J. (2010). Cerebral white matter recovery in abstinent alcoholics–a multimodality magnetic resonance study. Brain, 133(Pt 4), 1043–1053.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Germain, A., Buysse, D. J., & Nofzinger, E. (2008). Sleep-specific mechanisms underlying posttraumatic stress disorder: integrative review and neurobiological hypotheses. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 12(3), 185–195.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gontkovsky, S. T., Sherer, M., Nick, T. G., Nakase-Thompson, R., & Yablon, S. A. (2006). Effect of urbanicity of residence on TBI outcome at one year post-injury. Brain Injury, 20, 701–709.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, W. A., Cantor, J., Ashman, T., & Brown, M. (2006a). Treatment of post-TBI executive dysfunction: application of theory to clinical practice. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 21(2), 156–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, W. A., Zafonte, R., Cicerone, K. D., Cantor, J., Brown, M., Lombard, L., et al. (2006b). Traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: state of the science. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 85(4), 343–382. doi:10.1097/01.phm.0000202106.01654.61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grisaru, N., Amir, M., Cohen, H., & Kaplan, Z. (1998). Effect of transcranial magnetic stimulation in posttraumatic stress disorder: a preliminary study. Biological Psychiatry, 44(1), 52–55.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guse, B., Falkai, P., & Wobrock, T. (2010). Cognitive effects of high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: a systematic review. Journal of Neural Transmission, 117(1), 105–122. doi:10.1007/s00702-009-0333-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guskiewicz, K. M., Marshall, S. W., Bailes, J., McCrea, M., Cantu, R. C., Randolph, C., et al. (2005). Association between recurrent concussion and late-life cognitive impairment in retired professional football players. Neurosurgery, 57(4), 719–726. discussion 719–726.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guskiewicz, K. M., McCrea, M., Marshall, S. W., Cantu, R. C., Randolph, C., Barr, W., et al. (2003). Cumulative effects associated with recurrent concussion in collegiate football players: the NCAA Concussion Study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290(19), 2549–2555. doi:10.1001/jama.290.19.2549.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hannay, H. J., Howieson, D. B., Loring, D. W., Fischer, J. S., & Lezak, M. D. (2004). Neuropathology for neuropsychologists. In M. D. Lezak, D. B. Howieson, & D. W. Loring (Eds.), Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed., pp. 157–285). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harley, J. P., Allen, C., Braciszewski, T. L., Cicerone, K. D., Dahlberg, C., Evans, S., et al. (1992). Guidelines for cognitive rehabilitation. NeuroRehabilitation, 2, 62–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, A., & Bryant, R. (2002). Acute stress disorder: a synthesis and critique. Psychological Bulletin, 128(6), 886–902.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heskestad, B., Waterloo, K., Baardsen, R., Helseth, E., Romner, B., & Ingebrigtsen, T. (2010). No impact of early intervention on late outcome after minimal, mild and moderate head injury. Scandinavian Journal of Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine, 18, 10. doi:10.1186/1757-7241-18-10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., McGurk, D., Cotting, D. I., & Koffman, R. L. (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. The New England Journal of Medicine, 351(1), 13–22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa040603.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, C. W., McGurk, D., Thomas, J. L., Cox, A. L., Engel, C. C., & Castro, C. A. (2008). Mild traumatic brain injury in U.S. Soldiers returning from Iraq. The New England Journal of Medicine, 358(5), 453–463. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa072972.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huckans, M., Pavawalla, S., Demadura, T., Kolessar, M., Seelye, A., Roost, N., et al. (2010). A pilot study examining effects of group-based Cognitive Strategy Training treatment on self-reported cognitive problems, psychiatric symptoms, functioning, and compensatory strategy use in OIF/OEF combat veterans with persistent mild cognitive disorder and history of traumatic brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 47(1), 43–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hummel, F., Celnik, P., Giraux, P., Floel, A., Wu, W. H., Gerloff, C., et al. (2005). Effects of non-invasive cortical stimulation on skilled motor function in chronic stroke. Brain, 128(Pt 3), 490–499. doi:10.1093/brain/awh369.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Institute of Medicine (IOM). (2011). Cognitive rehabilitation therapy for traumatic brain injury: Evaluating the evidence. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iverson, G. L. (2006). Ethical issues associated with the assessment of exaggeration, poor effort, and malingering. Applied Neuropsychology, 13(2), 77–90. doi:10.1207/s15324826an1302_3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iverson, G. L., & McCracken, L. M. (1997). “Postconcussive” symptoms in persons with chronic pain. Brain Injury, 11, 783–790.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iverson, G. L., Zasler, N. D., & Lange, R. T. (2007). Post-Concussive disorder. In N. D. Zasler, D. I. Katz, & R. Zafonte (Eds.), Brain injury medicine: Principles and practice (pp. 333–371). New York: Demos Medical Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaschel, R., Della Sala, S., Cantagallo, A., Fahlb√∂ck, A., Laaksonen, R., & Kazen, M. (2002). Imagery mnemonics for the rehabilitation of memory: A randomised group controlled trial. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 12(2), 127–153.

  • Katz, D., Ashley, M., O’Shanick, G., & Connors, S. (2006). Cognitive rehabilitation: The evidence, funding and case for advocacy in brain injury. McLean: Brain Injury Association of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaur, C., Singh, J., Lim, M. K., Ng, B. L., & Ling, E. A. (1997). Macrophages/microglia as ‘sensors’ of injury in the pineal gland of rats following a non-penetrative blast. Neuroscience Research, 27, 317–322.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaur, C., Singh, J., Lim, M. K., Ng, B. L., Yap, E. P., & Ling, E. A. (1995). The response of neurons and microglia to blast injury in the rat brain. Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology, 21, 369–377.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, J. E., Jaffee, M. S., Leskin, G. A., Stokes, J. W., Leal, F. O., & Fitzpatrick, P. J. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder-like symptoms and mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 44(7), 895–919.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, M. R., Coelho, C., Turkstra, L., Ylvisaker, M., Moore Sohlberg, M., Yorkston, K., et al. (2008). Intervention for executive functions after traumatic brain injury: a systematic review, meta-analysis and clinical recommendations. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 18(3), 257–299. doi:10.1080/09602010701748644.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder: the burden to the individual and to society. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61(Suppl 5), 4–12. discussion 13–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khedr, E. M., Ahmed, M. A., Fathy, N., & Rothwell, J. C. (2005). Therapeutic trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation after acute ischemic stroke. Neurology, 65(3), 466–468. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000173067.84247.36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, L. A., King, D. W., Bolton, E. E., Knight, J. A., & Vogt, D. S. (2008). Risk factors for mental, physical, and functional health in Gulf War veterans. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 45(3), 395–407.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinnunen, K. M., Greenwood, R., Powell, J. H., Leech, R., Hawkins, P. C., Bonnelle, V., et al. (2011). White matter damage and cognitive impairment after traumatic brain injury. Brain, 134(2), 449–463. doi:10.1093/brain/awq347.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knight, C., Rutterford, N. A., Alderman, N., & Swan, L. J. (2002). Is accurate self-monitoring necessary for people with acquired neurological problems to benefit from the use of differential reinforcement methods? Brain Injury, 16(1), 75–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraus, M. F., Susmaras, T., Caughlin, B. P., Walker, C. J., Sweeney, J. A., & Little, D. M. (2007). White matter integrity and cognition in chronic traumatic brain injury: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Brain, 130(Pt 10), 2508–2519.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, H. S., Mattis, S., & Ruff, R. M. (1987). Neurobehavioral outcome following minor head injury. Journal of Neurosurgery, 66, 234–243.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, H. S., Wilde, E., Troyanskaya, M., Petersen, N. J., Scheibel, R., Newsome, M., et al. (2010). Diffusion tensor imaging of mild to moderate blast-related traumatic brain injury and its sequelae. Journal of Neurotrauma, 27(4), 683–694.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, B., Robertson, I. H., Clare, L., Carter, G., Hong, J., Wilson, B. A., et al. (2000). Rehabilitation of executive functioning: an experimental-clinical validation of goal management training. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 6(03), 299–312.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, B., Stuss, D. T., Winocur, G., Binns, M., Fahy, L., Mandic, M., et al. (2007). Cognitive rehabilitation in the elderly: effects on strategic behavior in relation to goal management. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 13(1), 143–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, B., Turner, G., & Stuss, D. T. (2008). Cognitive rehabilitation of executive dysfunction in cognitive neurorehabilitation. In D. T. Stuss, G. Winocur, & I. H. Robertson (Eds.), Evidence & applications (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lew, H. L., Vanderploeg, R. D., Moore, D. F., Schwab, K., Friedman, L., Yesavage, J., et al. (2008). Overlap of mild TBI and mental health conditions in returning OIF/OEF service members and veterans. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 45(3), xi–xvi.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liberzon, I., & Sripada, C. S. (2008). The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD: a critical review. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 151–169. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(07)67011-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, S. M., Pastorek, N. J., Benge, J. F., & Thornton, G. M. (2010). Postconcussive symptoms after blast and nonblast-related mild traumatic brain injuries in Afghanistan and Iraq war veterans. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 16(5), 856–866. doi:10.1017/S1355617710000743.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luis, C. A., Vanderploeg, R. D., & Curtiss, G. (2003). Predictors of postconcussion symptom complex in community dwelling male veterans. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 9, 1001–1015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mac Donald, C. L., Johnson, A. M., Cooper, D., Nelson, E. C., Werner, N. J., Shimony, J. S., et al. (2011). Detection of blast-related traumatic brain injury in U.S. military personnel. The New England Journal of Medicine, 364(22), 2091–2100.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, A. R., Ling, J., Mannell, M. V., Gasparovic, C., Phillips, J. P., Doezema, D., et al. (2010). A prospective diffusion tensor imaging study in mild traumatic brain injury. Neurology, 74(8), 643–650.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, A. R., Mannell, M. V., Ling, J., Gasparovic, C., & Yeo, R. A. (2011). Functional connectivity in mild traumatic brain injury. Human Brain Mapping, 32(11), 1825–1835.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAllister, T. W. (2009). Psychopharmacological issues in the treatment of TBI and PTSD. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(8), 1338–1367.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAllister, T. W., Flashman, L. A., McDonald, B. C., & Saykin, A. J. (2006). Mechanisms of working memory dysfunction after mild and moderate TBI: evidence from functional MRI and neurogenetics. Journal of Neurotrauma, 23(10), 1450–1467.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAllister, T. W., & Stein, M. B. (2010). Effects of psychological and biomechanical trauma on brain and behavior. Annals of The New York Academy of Sciences, 1208, 46–57. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05720.x.

  • McCann, U. D., Kimbrell, T. A., Morgan, C. M., Anderson, T., Geraci, M., Benson, B. E., et al. (1998). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(3), 276–279.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCrea, M. (2008). Mild traumatic brain injury and postconcussion syndrome: The new evidence base for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCrea, M., Iverson, G. L., McAllister, T. W., Hammeke, T. A., Powell, M. R., Barr, W. B., et al. (2009). An integrated review of recovery after mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI): implications for clinical management. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(8), 1368–1390.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLay, R. N., Klam, W. P., & Volkert, S. L. (2010). Insomnia is the most commonly reported symptom and predicts other symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in U.S. service members returning from military deployments. Military Medicine, 175(10), 759–762.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Medd, J., & Tate, R. L. (2000). Evaluation of an anger management therapy programme following ABI: a preliminary study. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 10, 185–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Messe, A., Caplain, S., Paradot, G., Garrigue, D., Mineo, J. F., Soto Ares, G., et al. (2011). Diffusion tensor imaging and white matter lesions at the subacute stage in mild traumatic brain injury with persistent neurobehavioral impairment. Human Brain Mapping, 32(6), 999–1011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Committee of the Head Injury Interdisciplinary Special Interest Group of the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine (ACRM) (1993). Definition of mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 86–87.

  • Mittenberg, W., Tremont, G., Zielinski, R. E., Fichera, S., & Rayls, K. R. (1996). Cognitive-behavioral prevention of postconcussion syndrome. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 11(2), 139–145.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moochhala, S. M., Md, S., Lu, J., Teng, C. H., & Greengrass, C. (2004). Neuroprotective role of aminoguanidine in behavioral changes after blast injury. The Journal of Trauma, 56, 393–403.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mooney, G., Speed, J., & Sheppard, S. (2005). Factors related to recovery after mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 19, 975–987.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, E. L., Terrberry-Spohr, L., & Hope, D. A. (2006). Mild traumatic brain injury and anxiety sequellae: a review of the literature. Brain Injury, 20, 117–132.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naeser, M. A., Martin, P. I., Treglia, E., Ho, M., Kaplan, E., Bashir, S., et al. (2010). Research with rTMS in the treatment of aphasia. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 28(4), 511–529.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (NCIPC). (2003). Report to congress on mild traumatic brain injury in the United States: Steps to prevent a serious public health problem. Atlanta: Centers for Disesase Control and Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Novakovic-Agopian, T., Chen, A. J., Rome, S., Abrams, G., Castelli, H., Rossi, A., et al. (2011). Rehabilitation of executive functioning with training in attention regulation applied to individually defined goals: a pilot study bridging theory, assessment, and treatment. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 26(5), 325–338. doi:10.1097/HTR.0b013e3181f1ead2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil-Pirozzi, T. M., Strangman, G. E., Goldstein, R., Katz, D. I., Savage, C. R., Kelkar, K., et al. (2010). A controlled treatment study of internal memory strategies (I-MEMS) following traumatic brain injury. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 25(1), 43–51. doi:10.1097/HTR.0b013e3181bf24b1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orr, N., Carter, K., Collen, J. F., Hoffman, M., Holley, A. B., & Lettieri, C. J. (2010). Prevalence of sleep disorders among soldiers with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Paper presented at the Chest, Honolulu, Hawaii, 22–26 October.

  • Oscar-Berman, M., & Marinkovic, K. (2007). Alcohol: effects on neurobehavioral functions and the brain. Neuropsychology Review, 17(3), 239–257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Otis, J. D., McGlinchey, R., Vasterling, J. J., & Kerns, R. D. (2011). Complicating factors associated with mild traumatic brain injury: impact on pain and posttraumatic stress disorder treatment. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 18(2), 145–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ownsworth, T. L., & McFarland, K. (1999). Memory remediation in long-term acquired brain injury: two approaches in diary training. Brain Injury, 13(8), 605–626.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ownsworth, T. L., McFarland, K., & Young, R. (2000). Self-awareness and psychosocial functioning following acquired brain injury: an evaluation of a group support programme. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 10(5), 465–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paniak, C., Toller-Lobe, G., Reynolds, S., Melnyk, A., & Nagy, J. (2000). A randomized trial of two treatments for mild traumatic brain injury: 1 year follow-up. Brain Injury, 14(3), 219–226.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pannu-Hayes, J., Morey, R. A., & Tupler, L. A. (Forthcoming). A case of frontal neuropsychological and neuroimaging signs following multiple primary-blast exposure. Neurocase, doi:10.1080/13554794.2011.588181.

  • Parcell, D. L., Ponsford, J. L., Rajaratnam, S. M., & Redman, J. R. (2006). Self-reported changes to nighttime sleep after traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 87(2), 278–285. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2005.10.024.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parcell, D. L., Ponsford, J. L., Redman, J. R., & Rajaratnam, S. M. (2008). Poor sleep quality and changes in objectively recorded sleep after traumatic brain injury: a preliminary study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89(5), 843–850.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Polusny, M. A., Kehle, S. M., Nelson, N. W., Erbes, C. R., Arbisi, P. A., & Thuras, P. (2011). Longitudinal effects of mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder comorbidity on postdeployment outcomes in national guard soldiers deployed to Iraq. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(1), 79–89. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.172.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ponsford, J., Willmott, C., Rothwell, A., Cameron, P., Ayton, G., Nelms, R., et al. (2001). Impact of early intervention on outcome after mild traumatic brain injury in children. Pediatrics, 108(6), 1297–1303.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ponsford, J., Willmott, C., Rothwell, A., Cameron, P., Kelly, A. M., Nelms, R., et al. (2000). Factors influencing outcome following mild traumatic brain injury in adults. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 568–579.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • RAND. (2008). Invisible wounds of war: Psychological and cognitive injuries, their consequences, and services to assist recovery. (Vol. MG-720-CCF). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, M. J., McCullagh, S., Shammi, P., & Feinstein, A. (2005). Cognitive impairment associated with major depression following mild and moderate traumatic brain injury. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 17, 61–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rauch, S. L., Shin, L. M., & Phelps, E. A. (2006). Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and extinction: human neuroimaging research–past, present, and future. Biological Psychiatry, 60(4), 376–382. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Report of (VA) Consensus Conference (2010). Practice recommendations for treatment of veterans with Comorbid TBI, Pain, and PTSD.

  • Robertson, I. H. (1996). Goal management training: A clinical manual. Cambridge: PsyConsult.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose, V. L. (1999). NIH issues consensus statement on the rehabilitation of persons with traumatic brain injury. American Family Physician, 59(4), 1051–1053.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbloom, M. J., Rohlfing, T., O’Reilly, A. W., Sassoon, S. A., Pfefferbaum, A., & Sullivan, E. V. (2007). Improvement in memory and static balance with abstinence in alcoholic men and women: selective relations with change in brain structure. Psychiatry Research, 155(2), 91–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossi, S., Hallett, M., Rossini, P. M., & Pascual-Leone, A. (2009). Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research. Clinical Neurophysiology, 120(12), 2008–2039. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2009.08.016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruff, R. M. (2005). Two decades of advances in understanding of mild traumatic brain injury. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 20(1), 5–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruff, R. M., & Jurica, P. (1999). In search of unified definition for mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 13, 943–952.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruff, R. M., Marshall, L. F., Klauber, M. R., et al. (1990). Alcohol abuse and neurological outcome of the severely head injured. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 5, 21–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutherford, W. H., Merrett, J. D., & McDonald, J. R. (1979). Symptoms at one year following concussion from minor head injuries. Injury, 10, 225–230.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, P. B., Lee-Wilk, T., Kok, B. C., & Wilk, J. E. (2011). Interdisciplinary rehabilitation of mild TBI and PTSD: A case report. Brain Injury, 25(10), 1019–1025.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saljo, A., Arrhen, F., Bolouri, H., Mayorga, M., Hamberger, A. (2008). Neuropathology and pressure in the pig brain resulting from low-impulse noise exposure. J Neurotrauma 25, 1397–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savola, O., & Hillbrom, M. (2003). Early predictors of post-concussion symptoms in patients with mild head injury. European Journal of Neurology, 10, 175–181.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sayer, N. A., Rettmann, N., Carlson, K. F., Bernardy, N., Sigford, B., Hamblen, J., et al. (2009). Veterans with history of mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder: challenges from provider perspective. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 46(6), 703–716.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schlund, M. W. (1999). Self awareness: effects of feedback and review on verbal self reports and remembering following brain injury. Brain Injury, 13(5), 375–380.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seelig, A. D., Jacobson, I. G., Smith, B., Hooper, T. I., Boyko, E. J., Gackstetter, G. D., et al. (2010). Sleep patterns before, during, and after deployment to Iraq and Afghanistan. Sleep, 33(12), 1615–1622.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sohlberg, M. M., McLaughlin, K. A., Pavese, A., Heidrich, A., & Posner, M. I. (2000). Evaluation of attention process training and brain injury education in persons with acquired brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 22(5), 656–676. doi:10.1076/1380-3395(200010)22:5;1−9;FT656.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stablum, F., Umilta, C., Mogentale, C., Carlan, M., & Guerrini, C. (2000). Rehabilitation of executive deficits in closed head injury and anterior communicating artery aneurysm patients. Psychological Research, 63(3/4), 265.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strangman, G. E., O’Neil-Pirozzi, T. M., Goldstein, R., Kelkar, K., Katz, D. I., Burke, D., et al. (2008). Prediction of memory rehabilitation outcomes in traumatic brain injury by using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89(5), 974–981. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2008.02.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stringer, A. Y. (2011). Ecologically-oriented neurorehabilitation of memory: robustness of outcome across diagnosis and severity. Brain Injury, 25(2), 169–178. doi:doi:10.3109/02699052.2010.541894.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stulemeijer, M., Van Der Werf, S. P., Jacobs, B., Biert, J., Van Vugt, A. B., Brauer, J. M. P., et al. (2006). Impact of additional extracranial injuries on outcome after mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 23, 1561–1569.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stuss, D. T., Ely, P., Hugenholtz, H., Richard, M. T., LaRochelle, S., Poirier, C. A., et al. (1985). Subtle neuropsychological deficits in patients with good recovery after closed head injury. Neurosurgery, 17, 41–47.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stuss, D. T., Robertson, I. H., Craik, F. I., Levine, B., Alexander, M., Black, S., et al. (2007). Cognitive rehabilitation in the elderly: a randomized trial to evaluate a new protocol. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 13(1), 120–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, E. V., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2005). Neurocircuitry in alcoholism: a substrate of disruption and repair. Psychopharmacology, 180(4), 583–594. doi:10.1007/s00213-005-2267-6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sundin, J., Fear, N. T., Iversen, A., Rona, R. J., & Wessely, S. (2010). PTSD after deployment to Iraq: conflicting rates, conflicting claims. Psychological Medicine, 40(3), 367–382. doi:10.1017/S0033291709990791.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taber, K. H., Warden, D. L., & Hurley, R. A. (2006). Blast-related traumatic brain injury: what is known? The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 18, 141–145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, G., & Jennett, B. (1974). Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness: a practical scale. Lancet, 2, 81–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Terrio, H., Brenner, L. A., Ivins, B. J., Cho, J. M., Helmick, K., Schwab, K., et al. (2009). Traumatic brain injury screening: preliminary findings in a US Army Brigade Combat Team. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 24(1), 14–23. doi:10.1097/HTR.0b013e31819581d8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tham, K., Ginsburg, E., Fisher, A. G., & Tegner, R. (2001). Training to improve awareness of disabilities in clients with unilateral neglect. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55(1), 46–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Der Naalt, N. J., Van Zomeren, A. H., Sluiter, A. H., & Minderhoud, J. M. (1999). One year outcome in mild to moderate head injury: the predictive value of acute injury characteristics related to complaints and return to work. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 66, 207–213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Zomeren, A. H., Brouwer, W. H., & Deelman, B. G. (1984). Attentional deficits: The riddles of selectivity, speed and alertness. In N. Brooks (Ed.), Closed head injury: Psychological, social and family consequences (pp. 74–107). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanderploeg, R. D., Curtiss, G., & Belanger, H. G. (2005). Long-term neuropsychological outcomes following mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 11, 228–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vasterling, J. J., & Brailey, K. (2005). Neuropsychological findings in adults with PTSD. In J. J. Vasterling & C. R. Brewin (Eds.), Neuropsychology of PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasterling, J. J., & Proctor, S. (2011). Understanding the neuropsychological consequences of deployment stress: a public health framework. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 17(1), 1–6. Epub 2010 Nov 2017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vasterling, J. J., Proctor, S., Amoroso, P., Kane, R., Heeren, T., & White, R. F. (2006). Neuropsychological outcomes of army personnel following deployment to the Iraq war. Journal of the American Medical Association, 296, 519–529.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vasterling, J. J., & Verfaellie, M. (2009). Posttraumatic stress disorder: a neurocognitive perspective. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 15(6), 826–829. doi:10.1017/S1355617709990683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vasterling, J. J., Verfaellie, M., & Sullivan, K. D. (2009). Mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder in returning veterans: perspectives from cognitive neuroscience. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(8), 674–684. doi:S0272-7358(09)00111-1 [pii] 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verfaellie, M., Amick, M. M., & Vasterling, J. J. (2012). Effects of TBI-associated neurocognitive alterations on the course of PTSD. In J. J. Vasterling, R. Bryant, & T. M. Keane (Eds.), PTSD and mild traumatic brain injury: (pp. 82–102). Guilford Press.

  • Wade, D. T., Crawford, S., Wenden, F. J., King, N. S., & Moss, N. E. G. (1997). Does routine follow up after head injury help? A randomised controlled trial. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 62(5), 478–484.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, R. L., Clark, M. E., & Sanders, S. H. (2010). The “Postdeployment multi-symptom disorder”: an emerging syndrome in need of a new treatment paradigm. Psychological Services, 7(3), 136–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walter, K. H., Palmieri, P. A., & Gunstad, J. (2010). More than symptom reduction: changes in executive function over the course of PTSD treatment. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(2), 292–295.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warden, D. L. (2006). Military TBI during the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 21(5), 398–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warden, D. L., French, L. M., Shupenko, L., Fargus, J., Riedy, G., Erickson, M. E., et al. (2009). Case report of a soldier with primary blast brain injury. NeuroImage, 47(Supplement 2), T152–T153. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.01.060.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warden, D. L., Ryan, L. M., Helmick, K. M., Schwab, K., French, L., Lu, W., et al. (2005). War neurotrauma: the Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center (DVBIC) experience at Walter Reed Army Medical Center (WRAMC). Journal of Neurotrauma, 22(10), 1178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watts, B. V., Landon, B., Groft, A., & Young-Xu, Y. (2011). A sham controlled study of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for posttraumatic stress disorder. Brain Stimulation, In Press, Uncorrected Proof.

  • Whitney, K. A., Shepard, P. H., Williams, A. L., Davis, J. J., & Adams, K. M. (2009). The medical symptom validity test in the evaluation of operation Iraqi freedom/operation enduring freedom soldiers: a preliminary study. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24(2), 145–152. doi:10.1093/arclin/acp020.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wightman, J. M., & Gladish, S. L. (2001). Explosions and blast injuries. Annals of Emergency Medincine, 37(6), 664–678.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilde, E. A., McCauley, S. R., Hunter, J. V., Bigler, E. D., Chu, Z., Wang, Z. J., et al. (2008). Diffusion tensor imaging of acute mild traumatic brain injury in adolescents. Neurology, 70(12), 948–955.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, B. A. (2008). Neuropsychological rehabilitation. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 141–162. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, B. A., Emslie, H., Quirk, K., Evans, J., & Watson, P. (2005). A randomized control trial to evaluate a paging system for people with traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 19(11), 891–894.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zillmer, E., Schneider, J., Tinker, J., & Kaminaris, C. (2006). A history of sports-related concussions. In R. J. Echemendia (Ed.), Sports neuropsychology: Assessment and management of traumatic brain injury (pp. 17–42). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Clinical Science Research and Development and the Rehabilitation Research and Development Services of the Department of Veterans Affairs; the National Institutes of Health and Boston University Clinical and Translational Science Institute. We thank Dr. Jennifer J. Vasterling for her expert advice and helpful discussion, and Sarah M. Kark, B.S., for assistance with manuscript preparation. The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yelena Bogdanova.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bogdanova, Y., Verfaellie, M. Cognitive Sequelae of Blast-Induced Traumatic Brain Injury: Recovery and Rehabilitation. Neuropsychol Rev 22, 4–20 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-012-9192-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-012-9192-3

Keywords

Navigation