Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Barriers to natural regeneration in temperate forests across the USA

  • Published:
New Forests Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

For millennia, natural disturbance regimes, including anthropogenic fire and hunting practices, have led to forest regeneration patterns that created a diversity of forest lands across the USA. But dramatic changes in climates, invasive species, and human population, and land use have created novel disturbance regimes that are causing challenges to securing desired natural regeneration. Climate is an ever-present background disturbance and determinant of species distribution. Changes in certain other factors such as large herbivore populations, wildfire, and pests modify forest composition and structure, and are common barriers to natural regeneration of desired species. Changes in long-standing disturbance regimes have led to the homogenization of forest landscape composition and structure. Today, forests have low regeneration potential and are low in resilience. They have reduced productivity and are prone to widespread health issues including severe forest mortality. In addition to epidemics of native invasive species due to climate change and availability of habitat at landscape scales, the continued introduction and spread of non-native pests and diseases are causing large-scale forest mortality. These ecological changes have cascading ecological consequences such as increases in severe wildfire, which pose new barriers to natural regeneration. Equally challenging are the barriers to natural regeneration that arise from social, political and economic factors. To address many of these issues requires active management that links all critical stages in the regeneration niche necessary for achieving desired regeneration to sustain forest development and production in a socially acceptable manner and economically viable market system.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrams MD (1990) Adaptations and responses to drought in Quercus species of North America. Tree Physiol 7:227–238

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abrams MD (1992) Fire and the development of oak forests. Bioscience 42:346–353

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abrams MD (2002) The postglacial history of oak forests in eastern North America. In: McShea WJ, Healy WM (eds) Oak forest systems ecology and management for wildlife. John Hopkins Univ Press, Baltimore, pp 34–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Agee JK (1993) Fire ecology of Pacific northwest forests. Island Press, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Alaback PB (1982) Dynamics of understory biomass in Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests of southeast Alaska. Ecol 63:932–1948

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander HD, Arthur MA (2010) Implications of a predicted shift from upland oaks to red maple on forest hydrology and nutrient availability. Can J For Res 40:716–726

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allen RM (1954) Shade may improve longleaf survival. USDA For Serv, Southern For Exp Sta, Southern Forestry Notes 90. New Orleans, LA, p 7

  • Allen CD, Macalady AK, Chenchouni H, Bachelet D, McDowell N, Vennetier M, Kitzberger T, Rigling A, Breshears DD, Hogg EH, Gonzalez P, Fensham R, Zhangm Z, Castro J, Demidova N, Lim J-H, Allard G, Running SW, Semerci A, Cobb N (2010) A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. For Ecol Manag 259:660–684

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arthur MA, Alexander HD, Dey DC, Schweitzer CJ, Loftis DL (2012) Refining the oak–fire hypothesis for management of oak-dominated forests of the eastern United States. J For 110(5):257–266

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashton MS, Kelty MJ (2018) The practice of silviculture: applied forest ecology. Wiley, Hoboken, p 776

    Google Scholar 

  • Augspurger CK (2009) Spring 2007 warmth and frost: phenology, damage and refoliation in a temperate deciduous forest. Funct Ecol 23:1031–1039

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aukema JE, Leung B, Kovacs K, Chivers C, Britton KO, Englin J, Frankel SJ, Haight RG, Holmes TP, Liebhold AM, McCullough DG, Von Holle B (2011) Economic Impacts of non-native forest insects in the continental United States. PLoS ONE 6(9):e24587. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024587

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ayres MP, Lombardero MJ (2000) Assessing the consequences of global change for forest disturbance from herbivores and pathogens. Sci Total Environ 262:263–286

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balci Y, Long RP, Mansfield M, MacDonald WL (2010) Involvement of Phytophthora species in white oak (Quercus alba) decline in southern Ohio. For Path 40:430–442

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes BV, Zak DR, Denton SR, Spurr SH (2010) Forest ecology, 4th edn. Wiley, New York, p 774p

    Google Scholar 

  • Battaglia M, Smith FW, Shepperd WD (2009) Predicting mortality of ponderosa pine regeneration after prescribed fire in the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA. Int J Wildl Fire 18(2):176–190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Battaglia MA, Gannon B, Brown PM, Fornwalt PJ, Cheng AS, Huckaby LS (2018) Changes in forest structure since 1860 in ponderosa pine dominated forests in the Colorado and Wyoming Front Range, USA. For Ecol Manag 422:147–160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bekker MF, Taylor AH (2010) Fire disturbance, forest structure, and stand dynamics in montane forests of the southern Cascades, Thousand Lakes Wilderness, California, USA. Ecoscience 71(1):59–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bentz BJ, Régnière J, Fettig CJ, Hansen EM, Hayes JL, Hicke JA, Kelsey RG, Negrón JF, Seybold SJ (2010) Climate change and bark beetles of the western United States and Canada: direct and indirect effects. Bioscience 60:602–613

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berg EE, Henry JD, Fastie CL, De Volder AD, Matsuoka SM (2006) Spruce beetle outbreaks on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, and Kluane National Park and Reserve, Yukon Territory: relationship to summer temperatures and regional differences in disturbance regimes. For Ecol Manag 227:219–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonnet VH, Schoettle AW, Shepperd WD (2005) Postfire environmental conditions influence the spatial pattern of regeneration for Pinus ponderosa. Can J For Res 35(1):37–47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyden S, Binkley D, Shepperd W (2005) Spatial and temporal patterns in structure, regeneration and mortality of an old growth ponderosa pine forest in the Colorado Front Range. For Ecol Manag 219(1):43–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyer WD (1985) Timing of longleaf pine release from overtopping hardwoods: a look 30 years later. South J Appl For 9:114–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyer WD (1990) Pinus palustris Mill. Longleaf pine. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH (eds) Silvics of North America, vol 1, Conifers. USDA For Serv, Agricultural Handbook 654, Washington, DC, pp 405–412

  • Boyer WD (1993) Long-term development of regeneration under longleaf pine seedtree and shelterwood stands. South J Appl For 17:10–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt L, He H, Iverson L, Thompson FR III, Butler P, Handler S, Janowiak M, Shannon PD, Swanston C, Albrecht M, Blume-Weaver R, Deizman P, DePuy J, Dijak WD, Dinkel G, Fei S, Jones-Farrand DT, Leahy M, Matthews S, Nelsonj P, Oberle B, Perez J, Peters M, Prasad A, Schneiderman JE, Shuey J, Smith AB, Studyvin C, Tirpak JM, Walk JW, Wang WJ, Watts L, Weigel D, Westin S (2014) Central hardwoods ecosystem vulnerability assessment and synthesis: a report from the Central hardwoods climate change response framework project. USDA Forest Service, Northern Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep NRS-124, Newtown Square, PA, p 254

  • Brockway DG, Gatewood RG, Paris RB (2002) Restoring grassland savannas from degraded pinyon-juniper woodlands: effects of mechanical overstory reduction and slash treatment alternatives. J Environ Manag 64:179–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brockway DG, Outcalt KW, Boyer WD (2007) Longleaf pine regeneration ecology and methods. In: Jose S, Jokela EJ, Mille DL (eds) The longleaf pine ecosystem: ecology, silviculture, and restoration. Springer, New York, pp 95–133

    Google Scholar 

  • Brose PH, Waldrop TA (2006) Fire and the origin of Table Mountain-pitch pine communities in the southern Appalachian Mountains, USA. Can J For Res 36:710–718

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brose PH, Waldrop TA (2010) A dendrochronological analysis of a disturbance–succession model for oak–pine forests of the Appalachian Mountains, USA. Can J For Res 40:1373–1385

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brose PH, Gottschalk KW, Horsley SB, Knopp PD, Kochenderfer JN, McGuinness BJ, Miller GW, Ristau TE, Stoleson SH, Stout SL (2008) Prescribing regeneration treatments for mixed-oak forests in the Mid-Atlantic region. USDA For Serv, Gen Tech Rep NRS-33, Newtown Road, PA, p 100

  • Brown P, Wu R (2005) Climate and disturbance forcing of episodic tree recruitment in a southwestern ponderosa pine landscape. Ecology 86:3030–3038

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown TL, Decker DJ, Riley SJ, Enck JW, Lauber TB, Curtis PD, Mattfeld GF (2000) The future of hunting as a mechanism to control white-tailed deer populations. Wildl Soc Bull 28(4):797–807

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown PM, Battaglia MA, Fornwalt PJ, Gannon B, Huckaby LS, Julian C, Cheng AS (2015) Historical (1860) forest structure in ponderosa pine forests of the northern Front Range, Colorado. Can J For Res 45(11):1462–1473

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butler PR, Iverson L, Thompson FR III, Brandt L, Handler S, Janowiak M, Shannon PD, Swanston C, Karriker K, Bartig J, Connolly S, Dijak W, Bearer S, Blatt S, Brandon A, Byers E, Coon C, Culbreth T, Daly J, Dorsey W, Ede D, Euler C, Gillies N, Hix DM, Johnson C, Lyte L, Matthews S, McCarthy D, Minney D, Murphy D, O’Dea C, Orwan R, Peters M, Prasad A, Randall C, Reed J, Sandeno C, Schuler T, Sneddon L, Stanley B, Steele A, Stout S, Swaty R, Teets J, Tomon T, Vanderhorst J, Whatley J, Zegre N (2015) Central Appalachians forest ecosystem vulnerability assessment and synthesis: a report from the Central Appalachians Climate Change Response Framework project. USDA Forest Service, Northern Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep NRS-146, Newtown Square, PA, p 310

  • Butler BJ, Hewes JH, Dickinson BJ, Andrejczyk K, Butler SM, Markowski-Lindsay M (2016) Family forest ownerships of the United States, 2013: findings from the USDA Forest Service’s national woodland owner survey. J For 114(6):638–647

    Google Scholar 

  • Cain MD, Shelton MG (2000) Revisting the relationship between common weather variables and loblolly-shortleaf pine seed crops in natural stands. New For 19:187–204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camill P, Umbanhowar CE Jr, Teed R, Geiss CE, Aldinger J, Dvorak L, Kenning J, Limmer J, Walkup K (2003) Late-glacial and Holocene climatic effects on fire and vegetation dynamics at the prairie-forest ecotone in south-central Minnesota. J Ecol 91:822–836

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cappaert D, McCullough DG, Poland TM, Siegert NW (2005) Emerald ash borer in North America: a research and regulatory challenge. Am Entomol 51:152–165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carvell KL, Tryon EH (1961) The effect of environmental factors on the abundance of oak regeneration beneath mature oak stands. For Sci 7(2):98–105

    Google Scholar 

  • Cecich RA, Sullivan NH (1999) Influence of weather at time of pollination on acorn production of Quercus alba and Quercus velutina. Can J For Res 29:1817–1823

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers ME, Fornwalt PJ, Malone SL, Battaglia MA (2016) Patterns of conifer regeneration following high severity wildfire in ponderosa pine–dominated forests of the Colorado Front Range. For Ecol Manag 378:57–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark JS, Beckage B, Camill P, Cleveland B, HilleRisLambers J, Lichter J, McLachlan J, Mohan J, Wyckoff P (1999) Interpreting recruitment limitation in forests. Am J Bot 86:1–16

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cocking MI, Varner JM, Sherriff RL (2012) California black oak responses to fire severity and native conifer encroachment in the Klamath Mountains. For Ecol Manag 270:25–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins BM, Roller GB (2013) Early forest dynamics in stand-replacing fire patches in the northern Sierra Nevada, California, USA. Landsc Ecol 28(9):1801–1813

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook ER, Seager R, Heim RRJ, Vose RS, Herweijer C, Woodhouse CA (2010) Megadroughts in North America: placing IPCC projections of hydroclimatic change in a long-term palaeoclimate context. J Quat Sci 25:48–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coultrap DE, Fulgham KO, Lancaster DL, Gustafson J, Lile DF, George MR (2008) Relationships between western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) and understory vegetation. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 1:3–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Covington WW, Moore MM (1994) Southwestern ponderosa forest structure: changes since Euro-American settlement. J For 92:39–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Crete M (1999) The distribution of deer biomass in North American supports the hypothesis of exploitation ecosystems. Ecol Lett 2:223–227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Croker TC, Boyer WD (1975) Regenerating longleaf pine naturally. USDA For Serv, Southern For Exp Sta, Res Pap SO-105, New Orleans, LA, p 21

  • Curtin PJ (2017) Canopy recruitment dynamics in naturally regenerated longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) woodlands. Thesis, University of Missouri

  • Dale VH, Joyce LA, McNulty S, Neilson RP, Ayres MP, Flannigan MD, Hanson PJ, Irland LC, Lugo AE, Peterson CJ, Simberloff D, Swanson FJ, Stocks BJ, Wotton BM (2001) Climate change and forest disturbances. Bioscience 51(9):723–734

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson CB, Gottschalk KW, Johnson JE (1999) Tree mortality following defoliation by the European gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar L.) in the United States: a review. For Sci 45(1):74–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Deal RL (2001) The effects of partial cutting on forest plant communities of western hemlock-Sitka spruce stands of southeast Alaska. Can J For Res 31:2067–2079

    Google Scholar 

  • Deal RL, Tappeiner JC (2002) The effects of partial cutting on stand structure and growth of western hemlock-Sitka spruce stands in southeast Alaska. For Ecol Manag 159(3):173–186

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deal RL, Oliver CD, Bormann BT (1991) Reconstruction of mixed hemlock-spruce stands in coastal southeast Alaska. Can J For Res 21:643–654

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deal RL, Hennon PE, Orlikowska EW, D’Amore DV (2004) Stand dynamics of mixed red alder-conifer forests of southeast Alaska. Can J For Res 34(4):969–980

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delcourt HR, Delcourt PA (1997) Pre-Columbian Native American use of fire on southern Appalachian landscapes. Conserv Biol 11(4):1010–1014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delcourt PA, Delcourt HR, Ison CR, Sharp WE, Gremillion KJ (1998) Prehistoric human use of fire, the Eastern Agricultural Complex, and Appalachian oak-chestnut forests: paleoecology of Cliff Palace Pond, Kentucky. Am Antiq 63(2):263–278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denevan WM (2011) The “pristine myth” revisited. Geogr Rev 101(4):576–591

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Desprez-Loustau M-L, Marcais B, Nageleisen L-M, Piou D, Vannini A (2006) Interactive effects of drought and pathogens in forest trees. Ann For Sci 63:597–612

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dey DC (2002) The ecological basis for oak silviculture in eastern North America. In oak forest ecosystems. In: McShea WJ, Healy WM (eds) Oak forest systems ecology and management for wildlife. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 46–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Dey DC (2014) Sustaining oak forests in eastern North America: regeneration and recruitment, the pillars of sustainability. For Sci 60(5):926–942

    Google Scholar 

  • Dey DC, Kabrick JM, Schweitzer CJ (2017) Silviculture to restore oak savannas and woodlands. J For 115(3):202–211

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobyns HF (1983) Their number become thinned: native American population dynamics in eastern North America. University Tennessee Press, Knoxville, p 396

    Google Scholar 

  • Downs AA (1944) Estimating acorn crops for wildlife in the southern Appalachians. J Wildl Manag 8(4):339–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Downs AA, McQuilken WE (1944) Seed production of southern Appalachian oaks. J For 42(12):913–920

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellefson PV, Cubbage FW (1980) State forest practice laws and regulations: A review and case study for Minnesota. Univ of Minnesota Agriculture Experiment Station, Sta. Bull 536-1980, p 42

  • Engelman HM, Nyland RD (2006) Interference to hardwood regeneration in northeastern North America: assessing and countering ferns in northern hardwood forests. North J Appl For 23(3):166–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engle DM, Bidwell TG, Moseley ME (1996) Invasion of Oklahoma rangeland and forests by eastern redcedar and ashe juniper. Oklahoma State Univ Div Agric Sci Nat Resour Oklahoma Coop Ext Serv Circular E 947:10

    Google Scholar 

  • Faison EK, Foster DR, Oswald WW, Hansen BCS, Doughty E (2006) Early Holocene openlands in southern New England. Ecology 87(10):2537–2547

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fajvan MA, Wood JM (1996) Stand structure and development after gypsy moth defoliation in the Appalachian Plateau. For Ecol Manag 89:79–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fan Z, Kabrick JM, Spetich MA, Shifley SR, Jensen RG (2008) Oak mortality associated with crown dieback and oak borer attack in the Ozark Highlands. For Ecol Manag 255:2297–2305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feddema JJ, Mast JN, Savage M (2013) Modeling high-severity fire, drought and climate change impacts on ponderosa pine regeneration. Ecol Model 253:56–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fei S, Kong N, Steiner KC, Moser WK, Steiner EB (2011) Change in oak abundance in the eastern United States from 1980 to 2008. For Ecol Manag 262:1370–1377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fornwalt PJ, Huckaby LS, Alton SK, Kaufmann MR, Brown PM, Cheng AS (2016) Did the 2002 hayman fire, Colorado, USA, burn with uncharacteristic severity? Fire Ecol 12(3):117–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fornwalt PJ, Stevens-Rumann CS, Collins BJ (2018) Overstory structure and surface cover dynamics in the decade following the Hayman Fire, Colorado. Forests 9:152. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9030152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foster DR, Clayden S, Orwig DA, Hall B, Barry S (2002) Oak, chestnut and fire: climatic and cultural controls of long-term forest dynamics in New England, USA. J Biogeogr 29:1359–1379

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frankel SJ (2008) Sudden oak death and Phytophthora ramorum in the USA: a management challenge. Australas Plant Pathol 37:19–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredericksen TS, Ross B, Hoffman W, Lester M, Beyea J, Morrison ML, Johnson BN (1998) Adequacy of natural hardwood regeneration on forestlands in northeastern Pennsylvania. North J Appl For 15(3):130–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost CC (1993) Four centuries of changing landscape patterns in the longleaf pine ecosystem. In: Hermann SM (ed) Proceedings of the Tall Timbers fire ecology conference 18. Tall Timbers Res Sta, Tallahassee, FL, pp 17–43

  • Frost C (2007) History and future of the longleaf pine ecosystem. In: Jose S, Jokela EJ, Mille DL (eds) The longleaf pine ecosystem: ecology, silviculture, and restoration. Springer, New York, pp 9–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Fule PZ, Korb JE, Wu R (2009) Changes in forest structure of a mixed conifer forest, southwestern Colorado, USA. For Ecol Manag 258(7):1200–1210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gan J (2004) Risk and damage of southern pine beetle outbreaks under global climate change. For Ecol Manag 191:61–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goergen M, Harding J, Owen C, Rey M, Scarlett L (2013) The state and future of U.S. forestry and the forest industry. In: Proceedings of a workshop May 29–30, 2013. Washington, DC, p 21

  • Gottschalk KW (1989) Gypsy moth effects on mast production. In: McGee CE (ed) Proceedings of the workshop: southern Appalachian mast management. Knoxville, TN, pp 42-50

  • Grubb PJ (1977) The maintenance of species-richness in plant communities: the importance of the regeneration niche. Biol Rev 52:107–145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grünwald NJ, Garbelotto M, Goss EM, Huengens K, Prospero S (2012) Emergence of the sudden oak death pathogen Phytophthora ramorum. Trends Microbiol 20(3):131–138

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gu L, Hanson PJ, Post WM, Kaiser DP, Yang B, Nemani R, Pallardy SG, Meyers T (2008) The 2007 Eastern US spring freeze: Increased cold damage in a warming world? Bioscience 58(3):253–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo Q, Zarnoch SJ, Chen X, Brockway DG (2016) Life cycle and masting of a recovering keystone indicator species under climate fluctuation. Ecosyst Health Sustain 2:e01226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guyette RP, Muzika RM, Dey DC (2002) Dynamics of an anthropogenic fire regime. Ecosystems 5:472–486

    Google Scholar 

  • Guyette RP, Stambaugh MC, Dey DC, Muzika RM (2012) Estimating fire frequency with the chemistry and climate. Ecosystems 15:322–335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guyette RP, Thompson FR, Whittier J, Stambaugh MC, Dey DC (2014) Future fire probability modeling with climate change data and physical chemistry. For Sci 60(5):862–870

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanberry BB (2014) Decreases by disturbance-dependent tree species in the eastern and central USA. Eur J For Res 133:1029–1041

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanberry BB, Nowacki GJ (2016) Oaks were the historical foundation genus of the east-central United States. Quat Sci Rev 145:94–103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanberry BB, Dey DC, He HS (2012) Regime shifts and weakened environmental gradients in open oak and pine ecosystems. PLoS ONE 7(7):e41337. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0041337

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hanberry BB, Dey DC, He HS (2014a) The history of widespread decrease in oak dominance exemplified in a grassland–forest landscape. Sci Total Environ 476–477:591–600

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanberry BB, Jones-Farrand DT, Kabrick JM (2014b) Historical open forest ecosystems in the Missouri Ozarks: reconstruction and restoration targets. Ecol Restor 32:407–416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanberry BB, Kabrick JM, He HS (2014c) Densification and state transition across the Missouri Ozarks landscape. Ecosystems 17:66–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hänninen H (2006) Climate warming and the risk of frost damage to boreal forest trees: identification of critical ecophysiological traits. Tree Physiol 26(7):889–898

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington TB (2006) Five-year growth responses of Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and western redcedar seedlings to manipulated levels of overstory and understory competition. Can J For Res 36(10):2439–2453

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington CA, Zasada JC, Allen EA (1994) Biology of red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.). In: Hibbs DE, DeBell DS, Tarrant RF (eds) The biology and management of red alder. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, pp 3–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris AS (1989) Wind in the forests of southeast Alaska and guides for reducing damage. USDA For Serv, Pacific Northwest Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep PNW-GTR-244, Portland, OR, p 63

  • Harris AS, Farr WA (1974) The forest ecosystem of southeast Alaska, 7: forest ecology and timber management. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest For Range Exp Sta, Gen Tech Rep PNW-GTR-25, Portland, OR, p 109

  • Hart JL, Holmes BN (2013) Relationships between Ligustrum sinense invasion, biodiversity, and development in a mixed bottomland forest. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 6:175–186

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartman K, McCarthy BC (2008) Changes in forest structure and species composition following invasion by a non-indigenous shrub, Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii). J Torr Bot Soc 135:245–259

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haymes KL, Fox GA (2012) Variation among individuals in cone production in Pinus palustris (Pinaceae). Am J Bot 99:640–645

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Healy WM, McShea WJ (2002) Goals and guildelines for managing oak ecosystems for wildlife. In: Healy WM, McShea WJ (eds) Oak forest systems ecology and management for wildlife. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 333–341

    Google Scholar 

  • Heiligmann RB, Norland ER, Hilt DE (1985) 28-year-old reproduction on five cutting practices in upland oak. North J Appl For 2(1):17–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hennon PE, McClellan MH, Spores SR, Orlikowska EH (2009) Survival and growth of planted yellow-cedar seedlings and rooted cuttings (stecklings) near Ketchikan. West J Appl For 24(3):144–150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hennon PS, McKenzie CM, D’Amore DV, Wittwer DT, Mulvey RL, Lamb MS, Biles FE, Cronn RC (2016) A climate adaptation strategy for conservation and management of yellow cedar in Alaska. USDA, For Serv, Pacific Northwest For and Range Exp Sta, Gen Tech Rep PNW-GTR-917, Portland, OR, p 382

  • Hessburg PF, Agee JK, Franklin JF (2005) Dry forests and wildland fires of the inland Northwest USA: contrasting the landscape ecology of the pre-settlement and modern eras. For Ecol Manag 211:117–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hessl AE, Baker WL (1997) Spruce and Fir Regeneration and Climate in the Forest-Tundra Ecotone of Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado U.S.A. Arctic Alpine Res 29(2):173–183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hicke JA, Logan JA, Powell J, Ojima DS (2006) Changing temperatures influence suitability for modeled mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreaks in the western United States. J Geophys Res 111:G02019. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JG000101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes TP, Aukema JE, Von Holle B, Liebhold A, Sills E (2009) Economic impacts of invasive species in forests past, present, future. The year in ecology and conservation biology. Ann NY Acad Sci 1162:18–38

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hood S, Lutes D (2017) Predicting post-fire tree mortality for 12 western US conifers using the first-order fire effects model (FOFEM). Fire Ecol 13(2):66–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horsley SB, Marquis DA (1983) Interference by weeds and deer with Allegheny hardwood reproduction. Can J For Res 13:61–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horsley SB, Stout SL, deCalesta DS (2003) White-tailed deer impact on the vegetation dynamics of a northern hardwood forest. Ecol Appl 13:98–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Houston DR (1994) Major new tree disease epidemics: beech bark disease. Ann Rev Phytopathol 32:75–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huebner CD (2006) Fire and invasive exotic plant species in eastern oak communities: an assessment of current knowledge. In: USDA For Serv, Northern Res S, Gen Tech Rep NRS-P-1, Newtown Square, PA, pp 218–232

  • Huffman JM (2006) Historical fire regimes in southeastern pine savannas. Dissertation, Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College

  • Inouye DW (2000) The ecological and evolutionary significance of frost in the context of climate change. Ecol Lett 3:457–463

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: synthesis report. In: Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK, Meyer LA (eds) Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, p 151

  • Iverson LR, Prasad AM, Matthews SN, Peters M (2008) Estimating potential habitat for 134 eastern US tree species under six climate scenarios. For Ecol Manag 254:390–406

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins MJ, Runyon JB, Fettig CJ, Page WG, Bentz B (2014) Interactions among the mountain pine beetle, fire, and fuels. For Sci 60(3):489–501

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson PS, Shifley SR, Rogers R (2009) The ecology and silviculture of oaks, 2nd edn. CABI Publishing, New York, p 600p

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Jose S, Jokela EJ, Miller DL (2007) The longleaf pine ecosystem: ecology, silviculture, and restoration. Springer, New York, p 438

    Google Scholar 

  • Joshi O, Grebner DL, Munn IA, Grala RK (2015) Issues concerning landowner management plan adoption decisions: a recursive bivariate probit approach. Int J Forestry Res. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/926303

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kabrick JM, Dey DC, Jensen RG, Wallendorf M (2008) The role of environmental factors in oak decline and mortality in the Ozark Highlands. For Ecol Manag 255:1409–1417

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keeley JE (2006) Fire management impacts on invasive plants in the western United States. Conserv Biol 20(2):375–384

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keeley J (2012) Ecology and evolution of pine life histories. Ann For Sci 69:445–453

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kemp KB, Higuera PE, Morgan P (2016) Fire legacies impact conifer regeneration across environmental gradients in the US northern Rockies. Landsc Ecol 31(3):619–636

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenefic LS, Sendak PE, Brissette JC (2005) Comparison of fixed diameter-limit and selection cutting in northern conifers. North J Appl For 22(2):77–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyser TL, Smith FW, Lentile LB, Shepperd WD (2006) Modeling postfire mortality of ponderosa pine following a mixed-severity wildfire in the Black Hills: the role of tree morphology and direct fire effects. For Sci 52(5):530–539

    Google Scholar 

  • Keyser TL, Lentile LB, Smith FW, Shepperd WD (2008) Changes in forest structure after a large, mixed-severity wildfire in ponderosa pine forests of the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA. For Sci 54(3):328–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirkman LK, Jack SB (2017) Ecological restoration and management of longleaf pine forests. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kittredge DB, Ashton PMS (1995) Impact of deer browsing on regeneration in mixed stands in southern New England. North J Appl For 12(3):115–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knapp BO, Wang GG, Walker JL, Cohen S (2006) Effects of site preparation treatments on early growth and survival of planted longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) seedlings in North Carolina. For Ecol Manag 226:122–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knapp BO, Wang GG, Walker JL (2013) Effects of canopy structure and cultural treatments on the survival and growth of Pinus palustris Mill. seedlings underplanted in Pinus taeda L. stands. Ecol Eng 57:46–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knoot TG, Schulte LA, Rickenbach M (2010) Oak conservation and restoration on private forestlands: negotiating a social-ecological landscape. Environ Manag 45:155–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kobziar LN, Godwin D, Taylor L, Watts AC (2015) Perspectives on trends, effectiveness, and impediments to prescribed burning in the southern US. Forests 6:561–580

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koenig WD, Knops JMH, Carmen WJ, Stanback MT, Mumme RL (1996) Acorn production by oaks in central coastal California: influence of weather at three levels. Can J For Res 26:1677–1683

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs KF, Haight RG, McCullough DG, Mercader RJ, Siegert NW, Liebhold AM (2010) Cost of potential emerald ash borer damage in US communities, 2009–2019. Ecol Econ 69:569–578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krist FJ Jr, Ellenwood JR, Woods ME, McMahan AJ, Cowardin JP, Ryerson DE, Sapio FJ, Zweifler MO, Romero SA (2014) 2013–2027 national insect and disease forest risk assessment. USDA For Serv FHTET-14-01, p 199

  • League K, Veblen T (2006) Climatic variability and episodic Pinus ponderosa establishment along the forest-grassland ecotones of Colorado. For Ecol Manag 228(1–3):98–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeBlanc DC, Foster JR (1992) Predicting effects of global warming on growth and mortality of upland oak species in the midwestern United States: a physiologically based dendroecological approach. Can J For Res 22:1739–1752

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levy LSY, Deal RL, Tappeiner JC (2010) The density and distribution of Sitka spruce and western hemlock seedling banks in partially harvested stands in southeast Alaska. USDA For Serv, Pacific Northwest Res Sta, Res Pap PNW-RP-585, Portland, OR, p 20

  • Logan JA, Régnière J, Powell JA (2003) Assessing the impacts of global warming on forest pest dynamics. Front Ecol Environ 1(3):130–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lorimer CG (1993) Causes of the oak regeneration problem. In: Loftis DL, McGee CE (eds) Proceedings oak regeneration: serious problems practical recommendations. USDA For Serv, Southeastern For Exp Sta, Gen Tech Rep SE-84, Asheville, NC, pp 14–39

  • Loudermilk EL, Hiers JK, Pokswinski S, O’Brien JJ, Barnett A, Mitchell RJ (2016) The path back: oaks (Quercus spp.) facilitate longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) seedling establishment in xeric sites. Ecosphere 7:e01361

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovett GM, Canham CD, Arthur MA, Weathers KC, Fitzhugh RD (2006) Forest Ecosystem responses to exotic pests and pathogens in eastern North America. Bioscience 56(5):395–405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovett GM, Weiss M, Liebhold AM, Holmes TP, Leung B, Lambert KF, Orwig DA, Campbell FT, Rosenthal J, McCullough DG, Wildova R, Ayres MP, Canham CD, Foster DR, LaDeau SL, Weldy T (2016) Nonnative forest insects and pathogens in the United States: impacts and policy options. Ecol Appl 26(5):1437–1455

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • MacCleery D (2008) Chapter 2. Reinventing the United States Forest Service: evolution from custodial management, to production forestry, to ecosystem management. In: Durst P, Brown C, Broadhead J, Suzuki R, Leslie R, Inoguchi A (eds) Reinventing forestry agencies experiences of institutional restructuring in Asia and the Pacific. United Nations, FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Asia and Pacific For Comm, Bangkok, pp 45–77

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald GE (2004) Cogongrass (Imperata cylindrical)—biology, ecology, and management. Crit Rev Plant Sci 23:367–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacMillan PC (1988) Decomposition of coarse woody debris in an old-growth Indiana forest. Can J For Res 18:1353–1362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masek JG, Cohen WB, Leckie D, Wulder MA, Vargas R, de Jong B, Healey S, Law B, Birdsey R, Houghton RA, Mildrexler D, Goward S, Smith WB (2011) Recent rates of forest harvest and conversion in North America. J Geophys Res 116:G00K03. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010jg001471

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattson WJ, Haack RA (1987) The role of drought in outbreaks of plant-eating insects. Bioscience 37:110–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald PM, Fiddler GO (2010) Twenty-five years of managing vegetation in conifer plantations in northern and central California: results, application, principles, and challenges. USDA For Serv, Pacific Southwest Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep PSW-231, Berkeley, CA, p 87

  • McEwan RW, Dyer JM, Pederson N (2011) Multiple interacting ecosystem drivers: toward and encompassing hypothesis of oak forest dynamics across eastern North America. Ecography 34:234–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKenney DW, Pedlar JH, Lawrence K, Campbell K, Hutchinson MF (2007) Potential impacts of climate change on the distribution of North American trees. Bioscience 57(11):939–948

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McShea WJ, Healy WM (eds) (2002) Oak forest ecosystems ecology and management for wildlife. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, p 432

    Google Scholar 

  • McWilliams WH, Stout SL, Bowersox TW, McCormick LH (1995) Adequacy of advance tree-seedling regeneration in Pennsylvania’s forests. North J Appl For 12:187–191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mensing S (2015) The paleohistory of California oaks. USDA For Serv, Pacific Southwest Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep PSW-251, Berkeley, CA, pp 35–47

  • Miller RF, Tausch RJ, McArthur ED, Johnson DD, Sanderson SC (2008) Age structure and expansion of piñon-juniper woodlands: a regional perspective in the Intermountain West. USDA For Serv, Rocky Mountain Res Sta, Res Pap RMRS-RP-69, Ft Collins, CO, p 15

  • Miller JH, Lemke D, Coulston J (2013) The invasion of southern forests by nonnative plants: current and future occupation, with impacts, management strategies, and mitigation approaches. In: The Southern forest futures project: Technical report. USDA For Serv, Southern Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep SRS-178, Asheville, NC, pp 397–456

  • Mitchell RJ, Hiers JK, O’Brien JJ, Jack SB, Engstrom RT (2006) Silviculture that sustains: the nexus between silviculture, frequent prescribed fire, and conservation of biodiversity in longleaf pine forests of the southeastern United States. Can J For Res 36:2713–2723

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell RJ, Hiers JK, O’Brien J, Starr G (2009) Ecological forestry in the southeast: understanding the ecology of fuels. J For 107:391–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Mooney KA, Linhart YB, Snyder MA (2011) Masting in ponderosa pine: comparisons of pollen and seed over space and time. Oecologia 165(3):651–661

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moser WK, Barnard EL, Billings RF, Crocker SJ, Dix ME, Gray AN, Ice GC, Kim M-S, Reid R, Rodman SU, McWilliams WH (2009) Impacts of non-native invasive species on US forests and recommendations for policy and management. J For 107(6):320–327

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagle AM, Long RP, Madden LV, Bonello P (2010) Association of Phytophthora cinnamomi with white oak decline in southern Ohio. Plant Dis 94:1026–1034

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson DM, Hu FS, Grimm EC, Curry BB, Slate JE (2006) The influence of aridity and fire on Holocene prairie communities in the eastern prairie peninsula. Ecology 87(10):2523–2536

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nowacki GJ, Abrams MD (2008) The demise of fire and “mesophication” of forests in the eastern United States. Bioscience 58(2):123–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nowacki GJ, Abrams MD (2015) Is climate an important driver of post-European vegetation change in the Eastern United States? Glob Change Biol 21:314–334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nowacki GJ, Kramer MG (1998) The effects of wind disturbance on temperate rain forest structure and dynamics of southeast Alaska. In: Shaw CG, Julin KR (eds) Conservation and resource assessments for the Tongass land management plan revision. USDA For Serv, Pacific Northwest Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep PNW-GTR-421, Portland, OR, p 25

  • Nyland RD, Bashant AL, Bohn KK, Verostek JM (2006) Interference to hardwood regeneration in northeastern North America: ecological characteristics of American beech, striped maple, and hobblebush. North J Appl For 23(1):53–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nyland RD, Bashant AL, Heitzman EF, Verostek JM (2007) Interference to hardwood regeneration in northeastern North America: pin cherry and its effects. North J Appl For 24(1):52–60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nyland RD, Kenefic LS, Bohn KK, Stout SL (2016) Silviculture: concepts and applications, 3rd edn. Waveland Press, Long Grove, p 680

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien JJ, Hiers JK, Callaham MA Jr, Mitchell RJ, Jack SB (2008) Interactions among overstory structure, seedling life-history traits, and fire in frequently burned neotropical pine forests. Ambio 37:542–547

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oak SW, Steinman JR, Starkey DA, Yockey EK (2004) Assessing oak decline incidence and distribution in the southern U.S. using forest inventory and analysis data. In: USDA For Serv, Southern Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep SRS-73, pp 236–242

  • Oliver CD, Larson BC (1996) Forest stand dynamics, Update edn. Wiley, Hoboken, p 520

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver WW, Ryker RA (1990) Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws. ponderosa pine. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH (eds) Silvics of North America, Vol 1 conifers, USDA For Serv, Agric Handbook 654. Washington, DC, pp 413–424

  • Oswalt SN, Oswalt CM (2011) The extent of selected nonnative invasive plants on southern forest lands. USDA For Serv, Northern Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep NRS-P-78. Newtown Square, PA, pp 447–459

  • Oswalt SN, Smith WB (2014) U.S. forest resource facts and historical trends. USDA, For Serv, FS-1035, Washington, DC, p 63

  • Oswalt CM, Cooper JA, Brockway DG, Brook HW, Walker JL, Connor KF, Oswalt SN, Connor RC (2012) History and current condition of longleaf pine in the southern United States. USDA For Serv, Southern Res Sta, Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-166, Asheville, NC, p 51

  • Oswalt SN, Smith WB, Miles PD, Pugh SA (2014) Forest resources of the United States 2012: a technical document supporting the Forest Service update of the 2010 RPA assessment. USDA For Serv, Gen Tech Rep WO-91, Washington, DC, p 218

  • Pan Y, Chen JM, Birdsey R, McCullough K, He L, Deng F (2011) Age structure and disturbance legacy of North American forests. Biogeosciences 8:715–732

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson WA III (2006) The paleoecology of fire and oaks in eastern forests. USDA For Serv, Northern Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep NRS-P-1, Newtown Square, PA, pp 2–19

  • Pederson N, Bell AR, Cook ER, Lall U, Devineni N, Seager R, Eggleston K, Vranes KP (2013) Is an epic pluvial masking the water insecurity of the greater New York city region? J Clim 26:1339–1354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pederson N, D’Amato AW, Dyer JM, Foster DR, Goldblum D, Hart JL, Hessl AE, Iverson LR, Jackson ST, Martin-Benito D, McCarthy BC, McEwan RW, Mladenoff DJ, Parker AJ, Shuman B, Williams JW (2015) Climate remains an important driver of post-European vegetation change in the eastern United States. Glob Change Biol 21:2105–2110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peet RK (1981) Forest vegetation of the Colorado front range. Vegetatio 45(1):3–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petrie MD, Wildeman AM, Bradford JB, Hubbard RM, Lauenroth WK (2016) A review of precipitation and temperature control on seedling emergence and establishment for ponderosa and lodgepole pine forest regeneration. For Ecol Manag 361:328–338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petrie MD, Bradford JB, Hubbard RM, Lauenroth WK, Andrews CM, Schlaepfer DR (2017) Climate change may restrict dryland forest regeneration in the 21st century. Ecology 98(6):1548–1559

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips DL, Murdy WH (1985) Effects of Rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum) on regeneration of southern Appalachian hardwoods. For Sci 31(1):226–233

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips RJ, Waldrop TA, Stottlemyer AD (2013) Occurrence and spread of nonnative invasive plants in stands treated with fire and/or mechanical treatments in the Upper Piedmont of South Carolina. In: USDA For Serv, Southern Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep SRS 175, Asheville, NC, pp 525–531

  • Pile LS, Wang GG, Knapp BO, Liu G, Yu D (2017a) Comparing morphology and physiology of southeastern US Pinus seedlings: implications for adaptation to surface fire regimes. Ann For Sci 74:68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pile LS, Wang GG, Stovall JP, Siemann E, Wheeler GS, Gabler CA (2017b) Mechanisms of Chinese tallow (Triadica sebifera) invasion and their management implications—a review. For Ecol Manag 404:1–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel D, Zuniga R, Morrison D (2005) Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecol Econ 52(3):273–288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poland TM, McCullough DG (2006) Emerald ash borer: invasion of the urban forest and the threat to North America’s ash resource. J For 104(3):118–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Prasad AM, Iverson LR, Matthews S, Peters M (2007) A climate change atlas for 134 forest tree species of the eastern United States. https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/atlas/tree. USDA For Serv, Northern Res Sta, Delaware, OH. Accessed 18 Dec 2018

  • Quality Deer Management Association (2009) White-tailed deer density map. QDMA, Bogart, Georgia, USA. http://www.i-maps.com/Qdma/. Accessed 18 Dec 2018

  • Ramsey CL, Jose S, Brecke BJ, Merritt S (2003) Growth response of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) seedlings to fertilization and herbaceous weed control in an old field in southern USA. For Ecol Manag 172:281–289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rebbeck J (2012) Fire management and woody invasive plants in oak ecosystems. In: USDA For Serv, Northern Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep NRS-P-102, Newtown Square, PA, pp 142–155

  • Reed SE, English JT, Muzika RM, Kabrick JM (2017) Characteristics of sites and trees affected by rapid white oak mortality as reported by forestry professionals in Missouri. In: USDA For Serv, Northern Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep NRS-P-167, pp 240–247

  • Rehfeldt GE, Crookston NL, Warwell MV, Evans JS (2006) Empirical analyses of plant-climate relationships for the western United States. Int J Plant Sci 167(6):1123–1150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rizzo DM, Garbelotto M (2003) Sudden oak death: endangering California and Oregon forest ecosystems. Front Ecol Environ 1(5):197–204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rooney TP (2001) Deer impacts on forest ecosystems: a North American perspective. Forestry 74(3):201–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rooney TP, Waller DM (2003) Direct and indirect effects of white-tailed deer in forest ecosystems. For Ecol Manag 181:165–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rossell CR, Gorsira B, Patch S (2005) Effects of white-tailed deer on vegetation structure and woody seedling composition in three forest types in the Piedmont Plateau. For Ecol Manag 210:415–424

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rother MT, Veblen TT (2016) Limited conifer regeneration following wildfires in dry ponderosa pine forests of the Colorado Front Range. Ecosphere 7(12):e01594. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1594

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rother MT, Veblen TT, Furman LG (2015) A field experiment informs expected patterns of conifer regeneration after disturbance under changing climate conditions. Can J For Res 45(11):1607–1616

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell MB, Woodall CW, Potter KM, Walters BF, Domke GM, Oswalt CM (2017) Interactions between white-tailed deer density and the composition of forest understories in the northern United States. For Ecol Manag 384:26–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruth RH, Harris AS (1979) Management of western hemlock–Sitka spruce forests for timber production. USDA, For Serv, Pacific Northwest Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep PNW-GTR-88, Portland, OR, p 204

  • Ryan KC, Knapp EE, Varner JM (2013) Prescribed fire in North American forests and woodlands: history, current practice, and challenges. Front Ecol Environ 11:e15–e24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Savage M, Mast JN, Feddema JJ (2013) Double whammy: high-severity fire and drought in ponderosa pine forests of the Southwest. Can J For Res 43(6):570–583

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoennagel T, Veblen TT, Romme WH (2004) The interaction of fire, fuels and climate across the Rocky Mountain forests. Biosciences 54(7):661–676

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schuler TM (2004) Fifty years of partial harvesting in a mixed mesophytic forest: composition and productivity. Can J For Res 34:985–997

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulte LA, Mladenoff DJ, Crow TR, Merrick LC, Cleland DT (2007) Homogenization of northern U.S. Great Lakes forests due to land use. Landsc Ecol 22:1089–1103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulte LA, Mottl EC, Palik BJ (2011) The association of two invasive shrubs, common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) and Tartarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica), with oak communities in the midwestern United States. Can J For Res 41:1981–1992

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seager R, Ting M, Held I, Kushnir Y, Lu J, Vecchi G, Huang H-P, Harnik N, Leetmaa A, Lau N-C, Li C, Velez J, Naik N (2007) Model projections of an imminent transition to a more arid climate in southwestern North America. Science 316:1181–1184

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharov AA, Leonard D, Liebhold AM, Roberts EA, Dickerson W (2002) “Slow the spread” a national program to contain the gypsy moth. J For 100:30–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharp WM, Sprague VG (1967) Flowering and fruiting in the white oaks. I. staminate flowering through pollen dispersal. Ecology 42:365–372

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepperd WD, Edminster CB, Mata SA (2006) Long-term seedfall, establishment, survival, and growth of natural and planted ponderosa pine in the Colorado front range. West J Appl For 21(1):19–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shifley SR, Thompson FR III (2011) Spatial and temporal patterns in the amount of young forests and implications for biodiversity. In: Greenberg CH, Collins BS, Thompson FR III (eds) Sustaining young forests communities: ecology and management of early successional habitats in the central hardwood region, USA. Springer, New York, pp 73–95

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shifley SR, Fan Z, Kabrick JM, Jensen RG (2006) Oak mortality risk factors and mortality estimation. For Ecol Manag 229:16–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shifley SR, Aguilar FX, Song N, Stewart SI, Nowak DJ, Gormanson DD, Moser WK, Wormstead S, Greenfield EJ (2012) Forests of the northern United States. Gen Tech Rep NRS-90. USDA For Serv, Northern Res Sta, Newtown Square, PA, 202 p

  • Shive KL, Preisler HK, Welch KR, Safford HD, Butz RJ, O’hara KL, Stephens SL (2018) From the stand scale to the landscape scale: predicting the spatial patterns of forest regeneration after disturbance. Ecol Appl 29(6):1626–1639

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith HC, Miller GW (1987) Managing Appalachian hardwood stands using four regeneration practices: 34-year results. North J Appl For 4:180–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sork VL, Bramble J, Sexton O (1993) Ecology of mast-fruiting in 3 species of North American deciduous oaks. Ecology 74:528–541

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks JC, Stambaugh MC, Keith EL (2012) Restoring fire suppressed Texas oak woodlands to historic conditions using prescribed fire. In: USDA For Serv, Northern Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep NRS-P-102, Newtown Square, PA, pp 127–141

  • Stambaugh MC, Guyette RP, Marschall JP (2011a) Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) fire scars reveal new details of a frequent fire regime. J Veg Sci 22:1094–1104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stambaugh MC, Sparks J, Guyette RP, Willson G (2011b) Fire history of a relict oak woodland in northeast Texas. Rangel Ecol Manag 64:419–423

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stambaugh MC, Varner JM, Noss RF, Dey DC, Christensen NL, Baldwin RF, Guyette RP, Hanberry BB, Harper CA, Lindblom SG, Waldrop TA (2015) Clarifying the role of fire in the deciduous forests of eastern North America: reply to Matlack. Conserv Biol 29:942–946

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stambaugh MC, Marschall JM, Abadir ER, Jones BC, Brose PH, Dey DC, Guyette RP (2018) Wave of fire: an anthropogenic signal in historical fire regimes across central Pennsylvania, USA. Ecosphere 9(5):e02222. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens JT, Collins BM, Miller JD, North MP, Stephens SL (2017) Changing spatial patterns of stand-replacing fire in California conifer forests. For Ecol Manag 406:28–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stromayer KA, Warren RJ (1997) Are overabundant deer herds in the eastern United States creating alternate stable states in forest plant communities? Wildl Soc Bull 25:227–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Tappeiner JC, Alaback PB (1989) Early establishment and vegetative growth of understory species in the western hemlock–Sitka spruce forests in southeast Alaska. Can J Bot 67:318–326

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tappeiner JC II, Maguire DA, Harrington TB, Bailey JD (2015) Silviculture and ecology of western U.S. forests, 2nd edn. Oregon State Univ Press, Corvallis, p 448

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor AH, Skinner CN (2003) Spatial patterns and controls on historical fire regimes and forest structure in the Klamath Mountains. Ecol Appl 13(3):704–719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tilghman NG (1989) Impacts of white-tailed deer on forest regeneration in northwestern Pennsylvania. J Wildl Manag 53:524–532

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timmis R, Flewelling J, Talbert C (1994) Frost injury prediction model for Douglas-fir seedlings in the Pacific Northwest. Tree Physiol 14(7–9):855–869

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • USDA Forest Service (2011) National report on sustainable forests—2010. USDA For Serv, FS 979, Washington, DC

  • USDA Forest Service (2016) Future of America’s forests and rangelands: update to the 2010 resources planning act assessment. USDA For Serv, Gen Tech Report WO-GTR-94, Washington, DC

  • Van Lear DH, Carroll WD, Kapeluck PR, Johnson R (2005) History and restoration of the longleaf pine-grassland ecosystem: implications for species at risk. For Ecol Manag 211(1–2):150–165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walck JL, Hidayati SN, Dixon KW, Thompson K, Poschlod P (2011) Climate change and plant regeneration from seed. Glob Change Biol 17:2145–2161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wall TG, Miller RF, Svejcar TJ (2001) Juniper encroachment into aspen in the northwest Great Basin. J Range Manag 54:691–698

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waring KM, O’Hara KL (2005) Silvicultural strategies in forest ecosystems affected by introduced pests. For Ecol Manag 209:27–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weigel DR, Peng C-YJ (2002) Predicting stump sprouting and competitive success of five oak species in southern Indiana. Can J For Res 32:703–712

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welch NT, Waldrop TA, Buckner ER (2000) Response of southern Appalachian table mountain pine (Pinus pungens) and pitch pine (P. rigida) stands to prescribed burning. For Ecol Manag 136:185–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westerling AL, Hidalgo HG, Cayan DR, Swetnam TW (2006) Warming and earlier spring increases western U.S. forest wildfire activity. Sci Exp www.sciencexpress.org. Accessed 6 July 2006. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1128834

  • Williams CE (1998) History and status of Table Mountain pine-pitch pine forests of the southern Appalachian Mountains (USA). Nat Areas J 18(1):81–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Winkler MG (1985) A 12,000-year history of vegetation and climate for Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Quat Res 23:301–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wipfli MS, Deal RL, Hennon PE et al (2002) Managing young upland forest in Southeast Alaska for wood products, wildlife, aquatic resources, and fishes: Problem analysis and study plan. USDA For Serv, Pacific Northwest Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep PNQ-GTR-558, Portland, OR, p 64

  • Wulder MA, Dymond CC, White JC, Leckie DG, Carroll AL (2006) Surveying mountain pine beetle damage of forests: a review of remote sensing opportunities. For Ecol Manag 221:27–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Northern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 202 Anheuser Busch Natural Resources Bldg., Columbia, MO, 65211, USA

    Daniel C. Dey

  2. School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri-Columbia, 203S Anheuser Busch Natural Resources Bldg., Columbia, MO, 65211, USA

    Benjamin O. Knapp

  3. Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 240 West Prospect Rd., Fort Collins, CO, 80526, USA

    Mike A. Battaglia

  4. PNW Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 620 SW Main Street, Suite 400, Portland, OR, 97205, USA

    Robert L. Deal

  5. Department of Geography, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA

    Justin L. Hart

  6. College of Natural Resources, University of California-Berkeley, 130 Mulford Hall, Berkeley, CA, 94720-3114, USA

    Kevin L. O’Hara

  7. Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 730-D Cook Avenue, Huntsville, AL, 35801, USA

    Callie J. Schweitzer

  8. Northern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 459 Nursery Bottom Road, Parsons, WV, 26287, USA

    Thomas M. Schuler

Authors
  1. Daniel C. Dey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Benjamin O. Knapp
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mike A. Battaglia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Robert L. Deal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Justin L. Hart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Kevin L. O’Hara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Callie J. Schweitzer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Thomas M. Schuler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Daniel C. Dey.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Dey, D.C., Knapp, B.O., Battaglia, M.A. et al. Barriers to natural regeneration in temperate forests across the USA. New Forests 50, 11–40 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-018-09694-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-018-09694-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation