Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Should the precautionary principle be implemented in Europe with regard to nanomaterials? Expert interviews

  • Research paper
  • Published:
Journal of Nanoparticle Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The precautionary principle finds itself at the forefront of scientific and regulatory discussions about nanotechnology and nanomaterials. In this study, we investigated whether European experts on nanotechnology governance and the management of nanomaterials (NMs) believe that more should be done to implement the precautionary principle when it comes to NMs, including why it should/should not be used and why it has/has not been adopted so far. In total, 54 relevant experts were identified using a snowball sampling methodology, and eventually 33 were interviewed. In total, 70% of the stakeholders strongly believed that the precautionary principle should be applied to manage NMs, while fewer than 1% believed that it could be applied for certain NMs and 7% had no opinion in favour of or against it. For the majority of the experts, the precautionary principle was considered fundamental for dealing with uncertain, complex, ambiguous risks, and they felt a precaution-based management and decision-making approach should be in place for controlling NMs. Arguments for why the precautionary principle has not been adopted so far for NM management were expressed, including the systematic stigmatisation of the principle as being unscientific and anti-innovation, a fear of overregulating an otherwise beneficial technology or product and diverging interests, priorities, and decision-making criteria. Based on our findings, we conclude that there is strong support among experts to strengthen the implementation of the precautionary principle in Europe when it comes to nanomaterials.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.

Availability of data and material

Audio records and transcriptions of the interviews for which we obtained permission exist; however, the authors promised not disclose any participant names.

Code availability

Not applicable.

Notes

  1. SIN stands for “Substitute It Now,” implying that these chemicals should be removed as soon as posible. Chemsec https://sinlist.chemsec.org/what-is-the-sin-list/, (Jan. 28, 2021)

  2. Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals.

  3. https://echa.europa.eu/-/board-of-appeal-decision-in-an-appeal-concerning-the-registration-requirements-for-nanoforms-published

References

  • Arvidsson R, Baun A, Furberg A, Hansen SF, Molander S (2018) Proxy measures for simplified environmental assessment of manufactured nanomaterials. Environ Sci Technol 52:13670–13680

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aschberger K, Micheletti C, Sokull-Klüttgen B, Christensen FM (2011) Analysis of currently available data for characterising the risk of engineered nanomaterials to the environment and human health — lessons learned from four case studies. Environ Int 37:1143–1156

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beck U (1992) Risk society: towards a new modernity. Translated by Ritter, Mark. London: Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-8346-5.

  • Biermann F, Abbott K, Andresen S, Bäckstrand K, Bernstein K, Betsill M, Zondervan R (2012) Navigating the anthropocene: improving earth system governance. Science. Policy Forum 335:1306–1307

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bondarenko O, Juganson K, Ivask A, Kasemets K, Mortimer M, Kahru A (2013) Toxicity of Ag, CuO and ZnO nanoparticles to selected environmentally relevant test organisms and mammalian cells in vitro: a critical review. Arch Toxicol 87:1181–1200

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bowman DM (2010) Global Perspectives on the oversight of nanotechnologies. In Hull M & Bowman D (eds). Nanotechnology environmental health and safety: risks, regulation and management.

  • Bowman DM, Hodge GA (2007) A small matter of regulation: an international review of nanotechnology regulation. Columbia Sci Technol Law Rev VIII:1–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowman D, van Calster G (2007) Does REACH go too far? Nat Nanotechnol 2:525–526

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Center for International Environmental Law / Baskut Tuncak (CIEL, 2013). Driving innovation. How stronger laws help bring safer chemicals to market. 36p.

  • CIEL, EEB, BEUC, ECOS, Client Earth, ANEC, Earth care without Harm (2014). European NGOs position paper on the Regulation of nanomaterials.

  • CIEL, EEB, BEUC, ECOS, Client Earth, Friends of the Earth Europe, WECF, ANEC (2012) Stakeholders’ response to the Communication on the Second Regulatory Review on Nanomaterials. 6p.

  • Clausen LWP, Hansen SF (2018) The ten decrees of nanomaterials regulations. Nat Nanotechnol 13(9):766–768

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Commission of the European Communities (2000) Communication from the commission on the precautionary principle COM (2000) 1. 28p.

  • European Commission (2013) Nanotechnology: the invisible giant tackling Europe´s future challenges. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Brussels, 44p.

  • European Commission, Commission staff working document, accompanying the document. Communication from the commission to the European Parliament, the council and the European Economic and Social Committee. Commission General Report on the operation of REACH and review of certain elements. Conclusions and Actions. {COM(2018) 116 final}, 2018

  • European Environmental Agency (2001) Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle 1896–2000, 22nd edn. Environmental issue report, Copenhagen, p 211

    Google Scholar 

  • European Environmental Agency Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation. EEA Report No 1/2013. 2013 764p.

  • European Parliament (2020) Resolution of 8 October 2020 on the draft Commission regulation amending the Annex to Regulation (EU) No 231/2012 laying down specifications for food additives listed in Annexes II and III to Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards specifications for titanium dioxide (E 171) (D066794/04 – 2020/2795(RPS))

  • European Parliament EP (2009) Report on regulatory aspects of nanomaterials. Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety Rapporteur: Carl Schlyter (2008/2208(INI)) 21p.

  • European Union (2012) Consolidated version of The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. Off J Eur Union 26(10):2012 344p

    Google Scholar 

  • Farré M, Sanchís J, Barceló D (2011) Analysis and assessment of the occurrence, the fate and the behavior of nanomaterials in the environment. Trends Anal Chem 30(3):517–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2010.11.014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garnett K, Van Calster G, Reins L (2018) Towards an innovation principle: an industry trump or shortening the odds on environmental protection? Law Innov Technol 10(1):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17579961.2018.1455023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gatti AM and Montanari S Nanopathology: the nano-bio-interaction of nanoparticles inside the human body. In: Lungu M, Neculae A, Bunoiu M and, Madalin B (Eds). Nanoparticles’ promises and risks. Characterization, manipulation, and potential hazards to humanity and the environment. Springer: 71-85. 2015

  • German Advisory Council on the Environment (2011). Precautionary strategies for managing nanomaterials. Chapter 7: conclusions and recommendations. June: 1-40.

  • González L, Lison D, Kirsch-Volders M (2008) Genotoxicity of engineered nanomaterials: a critical review. Nanotoxicology 2(4):252–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/17435390802464986

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen SF, Lennquist A (2020a) Carbon nanotubes added to the SIN List as a nanomaterial of very high concern. Nat Nanotechnol 15:3–4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen SF, Lennquist A (2020b) SIN List criticism based on misunderstandings. Nat Nanotechnol 15:418. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-020-0692-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen SF, Nielsen KN, Knudsen N, Grieger KD, Baun A (2013a) Operationalization and application of “early warning signs” to screen nanomaterials for harmful properties. Environ Sci Process Impacts 2013(15):190–203. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2em30571b

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen SF, Maynard A, Baun A, Tickner JA and Bowman DM (2013b) Nanotechnology — early lessons from early warnings. En: EEA (2013). Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation. EEA Report No 1/2013:530-559.

  • Hansen SF, Jensen KA, Baun AJ (2014) NanoRiskCat: a conceptual tool for categorization and communication of exposure potentials and hazards of nanomaterials in consumer products. J Nanopart Res 16:2195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-013-2195-z

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hett A (2007) Nanotechnology and the two faces of risk from a reinsurance perspective. In: Cameron NM & Michell EM (Eds. 2007) Nanoscale: issues and perspectives for the nano century. Chap. 2. Wiley: 15-26.

  • Institute of Occupational Medicine (2009) EMERGNANO: a review of completed and near completed environment, health and safety research on nanomaterials and nanotechnology (concise report). DEFRA Project CB0409. Concise Report March 2009, 81p.

  • Jain A, Ranjan S, Dasgupta N, Ramalingam C (2018) Nanomaterials in food and agriculture: an overview on their safety concerns and regulatory issues. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 58(2):297–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2016.1160363

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jasanoff S (1986) Risk management and political culture. Russell Sage Foundation 93p.

  • Klaine SJ, Alvarez PJJ, Batley GE, Fernandes TF, Handy RD et al (2008) Nanomaterials in the environment: behavior, fate, bioavailability, and effects. Environ Toxicol Chem 27(9):1825–1851 Critical review

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klaine SJ, Koelmans AA, Horne N, Carley S, Handy RD, Kapustka L, Kammer F (2012) Paradigms to assess the environmental impact of manufactured nanomaterials. Environ Toxicol Chem 31((1) January):3–14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klika CH (2015) Risk and the precautionary principle in the implementation of REACH. The inclusion of substances of very high concern in the candidate list. Eur J Risk Regul 6(1):111–120. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1867299X00004335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuraj N (2017) REACHing an environmental regulation for nanotechnology. An analysis of REACH as an instrument for preventing and reducing the environmental impacts of nanomaterials. Dissertation, Faculty of Law, University of Oslo. 451p.

  • Lopes RT, Gomes T, Serräo SV, Mestre NC, Joäo BM (2015) Ecotoxicological impact of engineered nanomaterials in bivalve mollusks: an overview. Mar Environ Res 111:74–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milieu, Study on the precautionary principle in EU environmental policies. Final report. European Commission, Directorate-General for Environment. 2017 119 p.

  • Milieu and ANEC, Review of environmental legislation for the regulatory control of nanomaterials. 2011 248p.

  • Nanosafety Cluster, (2017) NanoSafety Cluster research regulatory roadmap 2017. 39p. https://www.nanosafetycluster.eu/uploads/files/pdf/RRR_Final_version_090317.pdf (Accessed 02 February 2021)

  • Oberdörster G, Stone V, Donaldson K (2007) Toxicology of nanoparticles: a historical perspective. Nanotoxicology. March 1(1):2–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Peralta-Videa J, Zhao L, Lopez-Moreno M, de la Rosa G, Hong J, Gardea-Torresday J (2011) Nanomaterials and the environment: a review for the biennium 2008–2010. J Hazard Mater 186:1–15 Elsevier

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ProSafe The ProSafe White Paper. Towards a more effective and efficient governance and regulation of nanomaterials. 45p. 2017

  • Riechmann J (2002) Introducción: un principio para reorientar las relaciones de la humanidad con la biosfera. In: Riechmann J, Tickner J (eds) El principio de precaución en medio ambiente y salud pública: de las definiciones a la practica. Ed Icaria, Barcelona, pp 7–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Roco MC, Mirkin CH, Hersam M (2011) Nanotechnology research directions for societal needs in 2020: summary of international study. J Nanopart Res Editorial 13:897–919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-011-0275-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Royal Society & Royal Academy of Engineering (2004) Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties. Clyvedon Press, Cardiff, p 125

    Google Scholar 

  • Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks [2009] Risk assessment of products of nanotechnologies. Health & Consumer Protection Directorate General. European Commission. 71p.

  • Som C, Wick P, Krug H, Nowack B (2011) Environmental and health effects of nanomaterials in nanotextiles and façade coatings. Environ Int 37:1131–1142

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sunstein C (2003) Beyond the precautionary principle. Univ Pa Law Rev 151((3) Jan):103–105

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunstein C (2005) Laws of fear: beyond the precautionary principle. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tickner J, Kriebel D (2006) The role of science and precaution in environmental and public health. In: Fisher E, Jones J and Von Schomberg R (eds.) Implementing the precautionary principle. Perspectives and prospects. Chap. 3. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781847201676.00012

  • United Nations Environmental Program (2017) Frontiers 2017: emerging issues of environmental concern http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/22255

  • United States Government Accountability Office (2010) NANOTECHNOLOGY Nanomaterials are widely used in commerce, but EPA faces challenges in regulating risk. Report to the Chairman, Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate.

  • USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (2019) France bans Titanium Dioxide in food products by January 2020. GAIN report number: FR1917, 3p.

  • Van Calster G, Bowman D, D’Silva J (2011) Protecting consumers or failing them? The regulation of nanotechnologies in the EU. In Verdure Ch. (2011) Environmental law and consumer protection. Part II. Eur J Consumer Law 1:85–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Vos E and de Smedt (2020) Report: taking stock as a basis for the effect of the precautionary principle since 2000. RECIPES Project WP1. 210p.

  • Warshaw J (2012) The trend towards implementing the precautionary principle in US regulation of nanomaterials. Dose-Response 10:384–396. https://doi.org/10.2203/dose-response.10-030.Warshaw

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (WHO) (2017) WHO guidelines on protecting workers from potential risks of manufactured nanomaterials. Geneva. http://www.who.int/occupational health/publications/manufactured-nanomaterials/en/ (Accessed 02 February 2021)

  • World Intellectual Property Organization (2015) Economic growth and breakthrough innovations: a case study of nanotechnology. Econ Res Working Pap 29:33

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the participants who agreed to be interviewed and whose ideas and opinions informed this study. In addition, we wish to thanks the reviewers of the first draft for their valuable comments.

Funding

Part of this research was done during a research stay at Denmark Technical University by Laura Saldivar, funded by the CONACYT under the “Beca de movilidad en el extranjero 2018 (291250)” and the “Beca Fundación Kaluz para la movilidad COLMEX”. For Steffen Foss Hansen, financial support offered by the Mistra Environmental Nanosafety programme is gratefully acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centro de Estudios Demográficos Urbanos y Ambientales, El Colegio de Mexico, Mexico City, México

    Laura Saldívar-Tanaka

  2. Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark

    Steffen Foss Hansen

Authors
  1. Laura Saldívar-Tanaka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Steffen Foss Hansen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Both authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by LST, while the initial identification of relevant experts to interview was completed by SFH. The first draft of the manuscript was written by LST, and both authors commented on all versions of the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Laura Saldívar-Tanaka.

Ethics declarations

This research involved interviewing human participants, from whom we obtained informed consent. Where permission was provided, we recorded the interviews; otherwise, we only took notes. We agreed not to mention the names of the interviewees in any final product.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Saldívar-Tanaka, L., Hansen, S.F. Should the precautionary principle be implemented in Europe with regard to nanomaterials? Expert interviews. J Nanopart Res 23, 70 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-021-05173-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-021-05173-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation