Abstract
Aflatoxins are polyketide-derived, toxic, and carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced primarily by two fungal species, Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, on crops such as corn, peanuts, cottonseed, and treenuts. Regulatory guidelines issued by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) prevent sale of commodities if contamination by these toxins exceeds certain levels. The biosynthesis of these toxins has been extensively studied. About 15 stable precursors have been identified. The genes involved in encoding the proteins required for the oxidative and regulatory steps in the biosynthesis are clustered in a 70 kb portion of chromosome 3 in the A. flavus genome. With the characterization of the gene cluster, new insights into the cellular processes that govern the genes involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis have been revealed, but the signaling processes that turn on aflatoxin biosynthesis during fungal contamination of crops are still not well understood. New molecular technologies, such as gene microarray analyses, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and chromatin immunoprecipitation are being used to understand how physiological stress, environmental and soil conditions, receptivity of the plant, and fungal virulence lead to episodic outbreaks of aflatoxin contamination in certain commercially important crops. With this fundamental understanding, we will be better able to design improved non-aflatoxigenic biocompetitive Aspergillus strains and develop inhibitors of aflatoxin production (native to affected crops or otherwise) amenable to agricultural application for enhancing host-resistance against fungal invasion or toxin production. Comparisons of aflatoxin-producing species with other fungal species that retain some of the genes required for aflatoxin formation is expected to provide insight into the evolution of the aflatoxin gene cluster, and its role in fungal physiology. Therefore, information on how and why the fungus makes the toxin will be valuable for developing an effective and lasting strategy for control of aflatoxin contamination.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
CF Jelinek AE Pohland GE Wood (1989) ArticleTitleWorldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in foods and feeds – An update J Assoc Official Anal Chem 72 223–230 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL1MXhvFWgsLg%3D
Bhatnagar D, Payne GA, Cleveland TE, Robens JF. Mycotoxins: Current issues in the U.S.A. In: Barug D, et al., eds. Meeting the Mycotoxin Menace. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers. 2004; pp. 17–48
CAST. Mycotoxin: Risks in plant, animal and human systems. In: Richard GL, Payne GA, eds. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology Task Force Report No. 139, Ames, IA, 2003: 199 pp
Bhatnagar D, Yu J, Ehrlich KC. Toxins of filamentous fungi. In: Breitenbach M, et al., eds. Fungal Allergies and Pathogenicity. Chemical Immunology. Basel, Karger, 2002; 81: 167-206
D Bhatnagar KC Ehrlich TE Cleveland (2003) ArticleTitleMolecular genetic analysis and regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 61 IssueID2 83–93 Occurrence Handle12655449 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXit12msbc%3D
Brown RL, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE, Cary JW. Recent advances in preventing mycotoxin contamination. In: Sinha KK, Bhatnagar D, eds. Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety. New York, NY:Marcel Dekker, Inc. 1998; pp. 351–379
J Yu P-K Chang KC Ehrlich JW Cary D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland GA Payne JE Linz CP Woloshuk JW Bennett (2004) ArticleTitleClustered pathway genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis Appl Environ Microbiol 70 IssueID3 1253–1262 Occurrence Handle15006741 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXisVKjtLg%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.70.3.1253-1262.2004
Proctor R-H. Fusarium toxins: trichothecenes and fumonisins. Microbial-foodborne-diseases: mechanisms-of-pathogenesis- and- toxin-synthesis. 2000; pp. 363–381
DL Eaton JD Groopman (1994) The toxicology of aflatoxins: Human health, veterinary and agricultural significance Academic Press, Inc San Diego, CA 544
Cary JW, Bhatnagar D, Linz JE. Aflatoxins: Biological significance and regulation of biosynthesis. In: Cary JW, et al., eds. Microbial Foodborne Diseases. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Technomic Publishing Co. 2000; pp. 317–362
Henry SH, Bosch FX, Bowers JC. Aflatoxin, hepatitis and worldwide liver cancer risks. In: Trucksess MW, et al., eds. Mycotoxins and Food Safety. New York, NY:Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 2002; 504: 229–233
InstitutionalAuthorNameFAO (1997) Worldwide Regulations for Mycotoxins 1995. A Compendium FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 64 Rome, Italy
RL Brown TE Cleveland PJ Cotty JE Mellon (1992) ArticleTitleSpread of Aspergillus flavus in cotton bolls, decay of intercarpellary membranes, and production of fungal pectinases Phytopathology 82 462–467 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK38XksVCkt7g%3D
JW Cary RL Brown TE Cleveland M Whitehead RA Dean (1995) ArticleTitleCloning and characterization of a novel polygalacturonase-encoding gene from Aspergillus parasiticus Elsevier Sci. B.V. 153 129–133 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXjs1Cquro%3D
Payne GA. Process of contamination by aflatoxin-producing fungi and their impact on crops. In: Bhatnagar D, Sinha KK, eds. Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker. 1998; pp. 279–306
Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE, Brown RL, Cary JW, Yu J, Chang P-K. Preharvest aflatoxin contamination: Elimination through biotechnology. In: Dhaliwal GS, et al., eds. Ecological Agriculture and Sustainable Development. Indian Ecological Society and Centre for Research in Rural and Industrial Development, Chandigarh, India. 1998; 1: 101–129
RL Brown D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland (2004) Molecular biology for control of mycotoxigenic fungi DK Arora (Eds) Fungal Biotechnology in Agricultural, Food, and Environmental Applications Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, NY 69–77
Bhatnagar D, Cotty PJ, Cleveland TE. Genetic and biological control of aflatoxigenic fungi. In: Wilson CL, et al., eds. Microbial Food Contamination. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000; pp. 208–240
JW Cary BG Montalbano KC Ehrlich (2000) ArticleTitlePromoter elements involved in the expression of the Aspergillus parasiticus aflatoxin pathway gene avnA Biochim. et Biophys Acta 91377 1–6
RE Minto CA Townsend (1997) ArticleTitleEnzymology and molecular biology of aflatoxin biosynthesis Chemical Reviews 97 2537–2555 Occurrence Handle11851470 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXmvFCgsbc%3D Occurrence Handle10.1021/cr960032y
F Trail N Mahanti M Rarick R Mehigh S-H Liang R Zhou JE Linz (1995) ArticleTitlePhysical and transcriptional map of an aflatoxin gene cluster in Aspergillus parasiticus and functional disruption of a gene involved early in the aflatoxin pathway Appl Environ Microbiol 61 2665–2673 Occurrence Handle7618880 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXms1Grsro%3D
DM Meyers G Obrian WL Du D Bhatnagar GA Payne (1998) ArticleTitleCharacterization of aflJ, a gene required for conversion of pathway intermediate to aflatoxin Appl Environ Microbiol 64 3713–3717 Occurrence Handle9758789 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXms1entrk%3D
P-K Chang (2003) ArticleTitleThe Aspergillus parasiticus protein aflJ interacts with the aflatoxin pathway-specific regulator aflR Mol General Genet 268 IssueID6 711–719 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXit12mtb0%3D
KC Ehrlich P-K Chang J Yu PJ Cotty (2004) ArticleTitleAflatoxin biosynthesis cluster gene cypA is required for G aflatoxin formation Appl Environ Microbiol 70 IssueID11 6518–6524 Occurrence Handle15528514 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXhtVSju77J Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.70.11.6518-6524.2004
K Yabe H Nakajima (2004) ArticleTitleEnzyme reactions and genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 64 IssueID6 745–755 Occurrence Handle15022028 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXktlyrsrw%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00253-004-1566-x
Y Wen H Hatabayashi H Arai H Kitamoto K Yabe (2005) ArticleTitleFunction of the cypX and moxY genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus Appl Environ Microbiol 71 3192–3198 Occurrence Handle15933021 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXlt1OkurY%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.71.6.3192-3198.2005
JW Cary KC Ehrlich JM Bland BG Montalbano (2006) ArticleTitleThe aflatoxin biosynthesis cluster gene, aflX, encodes an oxidoreductase involved in conversion of versicolorin A to demethylsterigmatocystin Appl Environ Microbiol 72 IssueID2 1096–1101 Occurrence Handle16461654 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xhs1GhsLk%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.72.2.1096-1101.2006
DW Brown J-H Yu HS Kelkar M Fernandes TC Nesbitt (1996) ArticleTitleTwenty-five coregulated transcripts define a sterigmatocystin gene cluster in Aspergillus nidulans Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93 1418–1422 Occurrence Handle8643646 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28Xht1ens7w%3D Occurrence Handle10.1073/pnas.93.4.1418
KC Ehrlich JW Cary BG Montalbano (1999) ArticleTitleCharacterization of the promoter for the gene encoding the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway regulatory protein, AFLR Biochim. et Biophys. Acta 1444 412–417 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhvFCkurw%3D
KC Ehrlich BG Montalbano JW Cary (1999) ArticleTitleBinding of the C6-zinc cluster protein, AFLR, to the promoters of aflatoxin pathway biosynthesis genes Gene 230 249–257 Occurrence Handle10216264 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXjtVSmtbs%3D Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0378-1119(99)00075-X
D Bhatnagar SP Kale DM Greene-McDowell P-K Chang JW Cary PJ Cotty JW Bennett TE Cleveland (1996) Can we simultaneously affect fungal development and aflatoxin biosynthesis Proceedings of the Aflatoxin Elimination Workshop Fresno, CA 70
JE Flaherty GA Payne (1997) ArticleTitleOverexpression of alfR leads to upregulation of pathway gene expression and increased aflatoxin production in Aspergillus flavus Appl Environ Microbiol. 63 3995–4000 Occurrence Handle16535712 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXms1Sgtrs%3D
P-K Chang KC Ehrlich J Yu D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland (1995) ArticleTitleIncreased expression of Aspergillus parasiticus aflR, encoding a sequence-specific DNA-binding protein, relieves nitrate inhibition of aflatoxin biosynthesis Appl Environ Microbiol 61 2372–2377 Occurrence Handle7793958 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXlvFOgur8%3D
Chang P-K,Yu J, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE. Repressor-AFLR interaction modulates aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycopathologia 1999; 147: 105–112
P-K Chang J Yu D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland (2000) ArticleTitleCharacterization of the Aspergillus parasiticus major nitrogen regulatory gene, areA Biochim. et Biophys Acta 1491 263–266 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXjtlKhs7o%3D
SP Kale JW Cary D Bhatnagar JW Bennett (1996) ArticleTitleCharacterization of experimentally induced, nonaflatoxigenic variant strains of Aspergillus parasiticus Appl Environ Microbiol 62 3399–3404 Occurrence Handle8795232 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XlsFeqsbc%3D
SP Kale JW Cary C Baker D Walker D Bhatnagar JW Bennett (2003) ArticleTitleGenetic analysis of morphological variants of Aspergillus parasiticus deficient in secondary metabolite production Mycol Res 107 IssueID7 831–840 Occurrence Handle12967210 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXmtFKqs7k%3D Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0953756203007998
AM Calvo RA Wilson JW Bok NP Keller (2002) ArticleTitleRelationship between secondary metabolism and fungal development Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 66 IssueID3 447–459 Occurrence Handle12208999 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XnsFOitro%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/MMBR.66.3.447-459.2002
K Shimizu JK Hicks TP Huang NP Keller (2003) ArticleTitlePka, Ras and RGS protein interactions regulate activity of AflR Zn(II)2Cys6 transcription factor in Aspergillus nidulans Genetics 165 IssueID3 1095–1104 Occurrence Handle14668367 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmsVKntA%3D%3D
JW Bok NP Keller (2004) ArticleTitleLaeA, a regulator of secondary metabolism in Aspergillus spp Eukaryotic Cell 3 IssueID2 527–535 Occurrence Handle15075281 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXjtlKqs7s%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/EC.3.2.527-535.2004
LV Roze RM Beaudry NP Keller JE Linz (2004) ArticleTitleRegulation of aflatoxin synthesis by FadA/cAMP/protein kinase A signaling in Aspergillus parasiticus Mycopathologia 158 219–232 Occurrence Handle15518351 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXnsFOrtrY%3D Occurrence Handle10.1023/B:MYCO.0000041841.71648.6e
JK Hicks J-H Yu NP Keller TH Adams (1997) ArticleTitle Aspergillus sporulation and mycotoxin production both require inactivation of the FADA G protein-dependent signaling pathway EMBO J 16 4916–4923 Occurrence Handle9305634 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXlslOmsb8%3D Occurrence Handle10.1093/emboj/16.16.4916
N Kato W Brooks AM Calvo (2003) ArticleTitleThe expression of sterigmatocystin and penicillin genes in Aspergillus nidulans is controlled by veA, a gene required for sexual development Eukaryotic Cell 2 1178–1186 Occurrence Handle14665453 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXhtVSmu7nP Occurrence Handle10.1128/EC.2.6.1178-1186.2003
AM Calvo JW Bok W Brooks NP Keller (2004) ArticleTitle veA is required for toxin and sclerotial production in Aspergillus parasiticus Appl Environ Microbiol 70 IssueID8 4733–4739 Occurrence Handle15294809 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXms1elurY%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.70.8.4733-4739.2004
RAE Butchko TH Adams NP Keller (1999) ArticleTitle Aspergillus nidulans mutants defective in stc gene cluster regulation Genetics 153 715–720 Occurrence Handle10511551 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXmvFGmsLo%3D
CH Chiou M Miller DL Wilson F Trail JE Linz (2002) ArticleTitleChromosomal location plays a role in regulation of aflatoxin gene expression in Aspergillus parasiticus Appl. Environ. Microbiol 68 306–315 Occurrence Handle11772640 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xjt1Wmtw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.68.1.306-315.2002
P-K Chang J Yu (2002) ArticleTitleCharacterization of a partial duplication of the aflatoxin gene cluster in Aspergillus parasiticus ATCC 56775 Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 58 632–636 Occurrence Handle11956746 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xjs12ktbw%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00253-002-0945-4
GB Burow HW Gardner NP Keller (2000) ArticleTitleA peanut seed lipoxygenase responsive to Aspergillus colonization Plant Mol Biol 42 IssueID5 689–701 Occurrence Handle10809442 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXjt1Grtrs%3D Occurrence Handle10.1023/A:1006361305703
D Gomez I Garcia C Scazzocchio B Cubero (2003) ArticleTitleMultiple GATA sites: Protein binding and physiological relevance for the regulation of the proline transporter gene of Aspergillus nidulans Mol Microbiol 50 277–289 Occurrence Handle14507380 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXotFOhu78%3D Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03682.x
HN Arst MA Penalva (2003) ArticleTitlepH regulation in Aspergillus and parallels with higher eukaryotic regulatory systems Trends Genet 19 224–231 Occurrence Handle12683976 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXis12ns7c%3D Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0168-9525(03)00052-0
CP Woloshuk JR Cavaletto TE Cleveland (1997) ArticleTitleInducers of aflatoxin biosynthesis from colonized maize kernels are generated by an amylase activity from Aspergillus flavus Phytopathology 87 164–169 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXktV2lurk%3D Occurrence Handle18945137
GA Payne MP Brown (1998) ArticleTitleGenetics and physiology of aflatoxin biosynthesis Annu Rev Phytopathol 36 329–362 Occurrence Handle15012504 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXmtlaltrs%3D Occurrence Handle10.1146/annurev.phyto.36.1.329
J Yu P-K Chang D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland (2000) ArticleTitleCloning of sugar utilization gene cluster in Aspergillus parasiticus Biochim. et Biophys. Acta 1493 211–214 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXmt1Snsb4%3D
RK Bhatnagar S Ahmad KG Mukerji TA Venkitasubramanian (1986) ArticleTitlePyridine nucleotides and redox state regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 3240 J Appl Bacteriol 60 135–141 Occurrence Handle3700278 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL28XhvVeisLg%3D
RK Bhatnagar S Ahmad KG Mukerji TA Venkitasubramanian (1986) ArticleTitleNitrogen metabolism in Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 3240 and A. flavus NRRL 3537 in relation to aflatoxin production J Appl Bacteriol 60 203–211 Occurrence Handle2872196 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL28Xkt1Wntr0%3D
GS Thapar (1988) ArticleTitleMetabolite behaviour of aflatoxin producing strain and nontoxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus to different sources of nitrogen and glucose concentration Mycopathologia 102 9–12 Occurrence Handle3138542 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL1cXlt1Gmuro%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00436245
JW Bennett PL Rubin PL Lee PN Chen (1979) ArticleTitleInfluence on trace elements and nitrogen sources on versicolorin production by a mutant strain of Aspergillus parasiticus Mycopathologia. 69 161–166 Occurrence Handle530298 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL3cXht1CltLc%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00452829
T Kachholz AL Demain (1983) ArticleTitleNitrate repression of averufin and aflatoxin biosynthesis J Nat Products 46 499–506 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL3sXltlKlsL0%3D Occurrence Handle10.1021/np50028a013
WG Niehaus SuffixJr W Jiang (1989) ArticleTitleNitrate induces enzymes of the mannitol cycle and suppresses versicolorin synthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus Mycopathologia 107 131–137 Occurrence Handle2615792 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK3cXlt1SisA%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00707550
P-K Chang KC Ehrlich JE Linz D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland J Bennett (1996) ArticleTitleCharacterization of Aspergillus parasiticus niaD and niiA gene cluster Current Genet 30 68–75 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28Xkt1Grt74%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002940050102
KC Ehrlich PJ Cotty (2002) ArticleTitleVariability in nitrogen regulation of aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus strains Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 60 174–178 Occurrence Handle12382060 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XnvVOquro%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00253-002-1094-5
TV Reddy L Viswanathan TA Venkitasubramanian (1971) ArticleTitleHigh aflatoxin production on a chemically defined medium Appl Environ Microbiol 22 393–396 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE3MXlt1KrsbY%3D
TV Reddy L Viswanathan TA Venkitasubramanian (1979) ArticleTitleFactors affecting aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus in a chemically defined medium J General Microbiol 114 409–413 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL3cXhtVOjsbs%3D
J Tilburn S Sarkar DA Widdick EA Espeso M Orejas J Mungroo MA Penalva HN Arst SuffixJr (1995) ArticleTitleThe Aspergillus PacC zinc finger transcription factor mediates regulation of both acid- and alkaline-expressed genes by ambient pH EMBO J 14 779–790 Occurrence Handle7882981 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXktF2msL4%3D
J-H Yu N Keller (2005) ArticleTitleRegulation of secondary metabolism in filamentous fungi Annu Rev Phytopathol 43 437–458 Occurrence Handle16078891 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtVOksrvJ Occurrence Handle10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.140214
KC Ehrlich BG Montalbano JW Cary PJ Cotty (2002) ArticleTitlePromoter elements in the aflatoxin pathway polyketide synthase gene Biochim. et Biophys. Acta 1576 171–175 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XjvVejsLw%3D
VK Mehan RC Rao D Nageswara McDonald JH Williams (1988) ArticleTitleManagement of drought stress to improve field screening of peanuts for resistance to Aspergillus flavus Phytopathology 78 659–663
HW Schroeder H Hein SuffixJr (1967) ArticleTitleAflatoxins, production of the toxins in vitro in relation to temperature Appl Microbiol 15 441–445 Occurrence Handle6029840 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaF2sXpt1Kktg%3D%3D
D Bhatnagar SP McCormick (1988) ArticleTitleThe inhibitory effect of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extracts on aflatoxin synthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus J Am Oil Chem Soc 65 1166–1168 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL1cXlt1Gksrg%3D
Zeringue HJ Jr., Bhatnagar D. Neem and control of aflatoxin contamination. In: Singh RP, et al., eds. Neem and Environment. New Hampshire:Science Publishers, Inc. 1996; 2:713–727
HJ Zeringue SuffixJr. SR McCormick (1990) ArticleTitleAflatoxin production in cultures of Aspergillus flavus incubated in atmospheres containing cotton leaf-derived volatiles Toxicon. 28 445–448 Occurrence Handle2112274 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK3cXkt1SltLs%3D Occurrence Handle10.1016/0041-0101(90)90083-J
Wilson DM, Gueldner RC, McKinney JK, Lieusay RH. J Am Chem Soc 1981; 58: 959
RA Norton (1999) ArticleTitleInhibition of aflatoxin B1 biosynthesis in Aspergillus flavus by anthocyandins and related flavonoids J Agric Food Chem 47 1230–1235 Occurrence Handle10552442 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXht1Kisbc%3D Occurrence Handle10.1021/jf980995t
LL Zaika RL Buchanan (1987) ArticleTitleReview of compounds affecting biosynthesis or bioregulation of aflatoxins J Food Protect 50 691–708 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXmtlCrtb4%3D
HJ Zeringue SuffixJr RL Brown JN Neucere TE Cleveland (1996) ArticleTitleRelationships between C6-C12 alkanal and alkenal volatile contents and resistance of maize genotypes to Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin production J Agric Food Chem 44 403–404 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XmslKmsA%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10.1021/jf950313r
DM Greene-McDowelle B Ingber MS Wright HJ Zeringue SuffixJr. D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland (1999) ArticleTitleEffect of selected cotton leaf-life volatiles on growth, development and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus parasiticus Toxicon 37 883–893 Occurrence Handle10340828 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXislGqtL8%3D Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0041-0101(98)00209-8
Wright MS, Greene-McDowelle DM, Zeringue HJ Jr., Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE. Effects of volatile aldehydes from aflatoxin-resistant varieties of corn on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and aflatoxin biosynthesis. Toxicon 2000; 38: 1215–1223
SP Champe AAE El Zayat (1989) ArticleTitleIsolation of a sexual sporulation hormone from Aspergillus nidulans J Bacteriol 171 3982–3988 Occurrence Handle2661541 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL1MXkvFemu78%3D
DC Doehlert DT Wicklow HW Gardner (1993) ArticleTitleEvidence implicating the lipoxygenase pathway in providing resistance to soybean against Aspergillus flavus Phytopathology 83 1473–1477 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXis1Kjsbo%3D
Burow GB, Nesbitt TC, Dunlap J, Keller NP. Seed lipoxygenase products modulate Aspergillus mycotoxin biosynthesis. Mol Plant-Microbe Interact 1997; 380–387
A-M Calvo LL Hinze HW Gardner NP Keller (1999) ArticleTitleSporogenic effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids on development of Aspergillus spp Appl Environ Microbiol 65 3668 Occurrence Handle10427064 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXltVOlt7k%3D
T Jayashree C Subramanyam (1999) ArticleTitleAntiaflatoxigenic activity of engenol is due to inhibition of lipid peroxidation Lett Appl Microbiol 28 179–183 Occurrence Handle10196764 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXitlKhtL4%3D Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00512.x
AM Calvo HW Gardner NP Keller (2001) ArticleTitleGenetic connection between fatty acid metabolism and sporulation in Aspergillus nidulans J Biol Chem 276 IssueID28 25766–25774 Occurrence Handle11352908 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXlsVKgtLg%3D Occurrence Handle10.1074/jbc.M100732200
RA Wilson AM Calvo P-K Chang NP Keller (2004) ArticleTitleCharacterization of the Aspergillus parasiticus delta 12-desaturase gene: a role for lipid metabolism in the Aspergillus-seed interaction Microbiology 150 2881–2888 Occurrence Handle15347747 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXotF2js7c%3D Occurrence Handle10.1099/mic.0.27207-0
N Mahoney RJ Molyneux (2004) ArticleTitlePhytochemical inhibition of aflatoxigenicity in Aspergillus flavus by constituents of walnut (Juglans regia) J Agric Food Chem 52 IssueID7 1882–1889 Occurrence Handle15053524 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXitValsL4%3D Occurrence Handle10.1021/jf030812p
T Jayashree C Subramanyam (2000) ArticleTitleOxidative stress a prerequisite for aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus Free Radical Biol Med 29 981–985 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXotVCrurs%3D Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0891-5849(00)00398-1
J Yu CA Whitelaw WC Nierman D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland (2004) ArticleTitle Aspergillus flavus expressed sequence tags for identification of genes with putative roles in aflatoxin contamination of crops FEMS Microbiol Lett 237 333–340 Occurrence Handle15321681
GO O’Brian AM Fakhoury GA Payne (2003) ArticleTitleIdentification of genes differentially expressed during aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus Fungal Genet Biol 39 118–127 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXktFGhs74%3D Occurrence Handle10.1016/S1087-1845(03)00014-8
MS Price SB Conners S Tachdjian RM Kelly GA Payne (2005) ArticleTitleNutritional and environmental factors trigger diverse gene expression profiles for aflatoxin associated genes Fungal Genet Biol 42 506–518 Occurrence Handle15878831 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXktVKgtb4%3D Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.fgb.2005.03.009
MS Price JJ Yu WC Nierman HS Kim B Pritchard CA Jacobus D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland CA Payne (2006) ArticleTitleThe aflatoxin pathway regulator AflR induces gene transcription inside and outside of the aflatoxin biosynthetic cluster FEMS Microbiol Lett 255 275–279 Occurrence Handle16448506 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XivVWrsr0%3D Occurrence Handle10.1111/j.1574-6968.2005.00084.x
NP Keller TE Cleveland D Bhatnagar (1992) ArticleTitleVariable electrophoretic karyotypes of members of Aspergillus section Flavi Current Genet 21 371–315 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK38XktVCjt7s%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00351697
KR Foutz CP Woloshuk GA Payne (1995) ArticleTitleCloning and assignment of linkage group loci to a karyotype map of the filamentous fungus Aspergillus flavus Mycologia 87 787–794 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28Xpslyktw%3D%3D
K Kitamoto K Kimura K Gomi C Kumagai (1994) ArticleTitleElectrophoretic karyotype and gene assignment to chromosomes of Aspergillus oryzae Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 58 IssueID8 1467–1470 Occurrence Handle7765278 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXlvFOns7Y%3D Occurrence Handle10.1271/bbb.58.1467
CP Kurtzman MJ Smiley CJ Robnett DT Wicklow (1986) ArticleTitleDNA relatedness among wild and domesticated species in the Aspergillus flavus group Mycologia 78 955–959
DM Geiser JI Pitt JW Taylor (1998) ArticleTitleCryptic speciation and recombination in the aflatoxin-producing fungus Aspergillus flavus Proc Natl Acad Sci 95 388–393 Occurrence Handle9419385 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXjtl2gsQ%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10.1073/pnas.95.1.388
N Tran-Dinh JI Pitt DA Carter (1999) ArticleTitleMolecular genotype analysis of natural toxigenic and nontoxigenic isolates of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus Mycol Res 103 1485–1490 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXjsFyntw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0953756299008710
MA Klich J Yu P-K Chang EJ Mullaney D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland (1995) ArticleTitleHybridization of genes involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis to DNA of aflatoxigenic and non-aflatoxigenic Aspergilli Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 44 439–443 Occurrence Handle8597546 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XitVertr0%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002530050579
MA Klich B Montalbano K Ehrlich (1997) ArticleTitleNorthern analysis of aflatoxin biosynthesis genes in Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus sojae Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 47 246–249 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXitlequr4%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002530050921
P-K Chang D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland JW Bennett (1995) ArticleTitleSequence variability in homologs of the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway gene aflR distinguished species in Aspergillus section Flavi Appl Environ Microbiol 61 40–43 Occurrence Handle7887625 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXivValtbg%3D
AJ Watson LJ Fuller DJ Jeenes DB Archer (1999) ArticleTitleHomologs of aflatoxin biosynthesis genes and sequence of aflR in Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus sojae Appl Environ Microbiol 65 307–310 Occurrence Handle9872797 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXjvVymsw%3D%3D
KI Kusumoto K Yabe Y Nogate H. Ohta (1998) ArticleTitle Aspergillus oryzae with and without a homolog of aflatoxin biosynthetic gene ver-1 Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 50 98–104 Occurrence Handle9720206 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXlslSisL4%3D Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002530051262
K-I Kusumoto K Yabe Y Nogata H. Ohta (1998) ArticleTitleTranscript of a homolog of aflR, a regulatory gene for aflatoxin synthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus, was not detected in Aspergillus oryzae strains FEMS Microbiol Lett 169 303–307 Occurrence Handle9868774 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXnvVSqtrs%3D Occurrence Handle10.1111/j.1574-6968.1998.tb13333.x
T Takahashi PK Chang K Matsushima J Yu K Abe D Bhatnagar TE Cleveland (2002) ArticleTitleFunctionality of Aspergillus sojae aflR in a strain of Aspergillus parasiticus with a disrupted aflR gene Appl Environ Microbiol 68 3737–3743 Occurrence Handle12147467 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XmtVaqtbg%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.68.8.3737-3743.2002
Cary JW, Enrlich KC. Aflatoxigenicity in Aspergillus: Molecular genetics, phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary implications. Mycopathologia 2006; 161 (in press)
PJ Cotty (1994) ArticleTitleInfluence of field application of an atoxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus on the populations of A. flavus infecting cotton bolls and on the aflatoxin content of cottonseed Phytopathology 84 1270–1277
TE Cleveland PF Dowd AE Desjardins D Bhatnagar PJ Cotty (2003) ArticleTitleUnited States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service research on pre-harvest prevention of mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in U.S. crops Pest Manage Sci 59 629–642 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXkslektr4%3D Occurrence Handle10.1002/ps.724
U Konietzky R Greiner (2003) ArticleTitleThe applicationof PCR in the detection of mycotoxigenic fungi in foods Brazilian J Microbiol 34 283–300
SG Edwards J O’Callaghan AD Dobson (2002) ArticleTitlePCR-based detection and quantification of mycotoxigenic fungi Mycol Res 106 1005–1025 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XpsVCgurw%3D Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0953756202006354
PF Dowd CJ Barnett ET Johnson JJ Beck (2004) ArticleTitleLeaf axil sampling of Midwest U.S. maize for mycotoxigenic Fusarium fungi using PCR analysis Mycopathologia 158 431–440 Occurrence Handle15630552 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXkslKm Occurrence Handle10.1007/s11046-004-3862-5
R Shapira N Paster O Eyal M Menasherov A Mett R Salomon (1996) ArticleTitleDetection of aflatoxigenic molds in grains by PCR Appl Environ Microbiol 62 IssueID9 3270–3273 Occurrence Handle8795215 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XlsFeru7c%3D
R-S Chen J-G Tsay Y-F Huang RY-Y Chiou (2002) ArticleTitlePolymerase chain reaction-mediated characterization of molds belonging to the Aspergillus flavus group and detection of Aspergillus parasiticus in peanut kernels by a multiplex polymerase chain reaction J Food Protect 65 840–844 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XktF2ltb0%3D
Z Mayer P Farber R Geisen (2003) ArticleTitleMonitoring the production of aflatoxin B1 in wheat by measduring the concentration of nor-1 mRNA Appl Environ Microbiol 69 1154–1158 Occurrence Handle12571042 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXhtF2it7g%3D Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.69.2.1154-1158.2003
B Scherm M Palomba D Serra A Marcello Q Migheli (2005) ArticleTitleDetection of transcripts of the aflatoxin genes aflD, aflO, and aflP by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reactions allows differentiation of aflatoxin-producing and non-producing isolates of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus Int J Food Microbiol 98 IssueID2 201–210 Occurrence Handle15681047 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXoslelsg%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.06.004
Pringle A, Taylor J. The fitness of filamentous fungi. 2002.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bhatnagar, D., Cary, J.W., Ehrlich, K. et al. Understanding the genetics of regulation of aflatoxin production and Aspergillus flavus development. Mycopathologia 162, 155–166 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-006-0050-9
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-006-0050-9