Abstract
Parents’ level of involvement in children’s schooling is related to children’s academic success; yet, few studies have considered factors that may play a role in this relation. This study examined an interactional model to determine whether children’s affect toward maternal involvement and autonomy supportive versus controlling parenting moderated relations between three involvement types and children’s academic motivation and achievement. Participants were 213 third through fifth-grade children, their mothers and teachers. Unexpectedly, interactions for perceived competence (β = − .26, b = − 0.34) and grades (β = − .14, b = -1.28) indicated that when children’s affect was negative, higher school involvement was associated with higher perceived competence (p < .001) and grades (p = .038). Another interaction (β = .22, b = 2.28) indicated that, as predicted, when mothers were autonomy supportive, higher personal involvement was associated with more autonomous self-regulation (p = .003). This interaction was not present for other outcomes. Findings suggest ways to optimally involve mothers in children’s schooling.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
References
Acock, A. C. (2014). A gentle introduction to Stata (4th ed.). Texas: Stata Press.
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Dauber, S. L. (2003). On the success of failure: A reassessment of the effects of retention in the primary school grades. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Arbuckle, J. L. (2016). IBM SPSS Amos 24.0. User’s Guide.
Baguley, T. (2009). Standardized or simple effect size: What should be reported? British Journal of Psychology,100(3), 603–617. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712608X377117.
Baldwin, S. A., Imel, Z. E., Braithwaite, S. R., & Atkins, D. C. (2014). Analyzing multiple outcomes in clinical research using multivariate multilevel models. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,82(5), 920–930. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035628.
Bean, R. A., Bush, K. R., McKenry, P. C., & Wilson, S. M. (2003). The impact of parental support, behavioral control, and psychological control on the academic achievement and self-esteem of African American and European American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research,18(5), 523–541. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558403255070.
Bentler, P. M., & Dudgeon, P. (1996). Covariance structure analysis: Statistical practice, theory, and directions. Annual Review of Psychology,47(1), 563–592. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.563.
Bindman, S. W., Pomerantz, E. M., & Roisman, G. I. (2015). Do children’s executive functions account for associations between early autonomy-supportive parenting and achievement through high school? Journal of Educational Psychology,107(3), 756–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000017.
Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS, EQS, and LISREL: Comparative approaches to testing for the factorial validity of a measuring instrument. International Journal of Testing,1(1), 55–86. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327574IJT0101_4.
Chirkov, V. I., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Parent and teacher autonomy-support in Russian and US adolescents: Common effects on well-being and academic motivation. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,32(5), 618–635. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022101032005006.
Coyl-Shepherd, D. D., & Newland, L. A. (2013). Mothers’ and fathers’ couple and family contextual influences, parent involvement, and school-age child attachment. Early Child Development and Care,183(3–4), 553–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.711599.
Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (2017). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. In B. Laursen & R. Zukauskiene (Eds.), Interpersonal development (pp. 161–170). London: Routledge.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
Deslandes, R., & Bertrand, R. (2005). Motivation of parent involvement in secondary-level schooling. The Journal of Educational Research,98(3), 164–175. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.98.3.164-175.
Epstein, J. L., & Sanders, M. G. (2002). Family, school, and community partnerships. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 5. Practical issues in parenting (pp. 407–437). New York: Psychology Press.
Estrada, P., Arsenio, W. F., Hess, R. D., & Holloway, S. D. (1987). Affective quality of the mother-child relationship: Longitudinal consequences for children’s school-relevant cognitive functioning. Developmental Psychology,23(2), 210–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.23.2.210.
Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015, Pub. L. No. 114-95 § 114 Stat. 1177 (2015–2016).
Fan, X., & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review,13(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009048817385.
Fan, W., & Williams, C. M. (2010). The effects of parental involvement on students’ academic self-efficacy, engagement and intrinsic motivation. Educational Psychology,30(1), 53–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410903353302.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G* Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods,41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/brm.41.4.1149.
Froiland, J. M., & Oros, E. (2014). Intrinsic motivation, perceived competence and classroom engagement as longitudinal predictors of adolescent reading achievement. Educational Psychology,34(2), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.822964.
Gonida, E. N., & Cortina, K. S. (2014). Parental involvement in homework: Relations with parent and student achievement-related motivational beliefs and achievement. British Journal of Educational Psychology,84(3), 376–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12039.
Gonzalez-DeHass, A. R., Willems, P. P., & Holbein, M. F. D. (2005). Examining the relationship between parental involvement and student motivation. Educational Psychology Review,17(2), 99–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3949-7.
Grolnick, W. S. (2009). The role of parents in facilitating autonomous self-regulation for education. Theory and Research in Education,7(2), 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878509104321.
Grolnick, W. S. (2015). Mothers’ motivation for involvement in their children’s schooling: Mechanisms and outcomes. Motivation and Emotion,39(1), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9423-4.
Grolnick, W. S., Gurland, S. T., DeCourcey, W., & Jacob, K. (2002). Antecedents and consequences of mothers’ autonomy support: An experimental investigation. Developmental Psychology,38, 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.1.143.
Grolnick, W. S., & Ryan, R. M. (1989). Parent styles associated with children’s self-regulation and competence in school. Journal of Educational Psychology,81, 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.81.2.143.
Grolnick, W. S., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1991). Inner resources for school achievement: Motivational mediators of children’s perceptions of their parents. Journal of Educational Psychology,83(4), 508–517. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.83.4.508.
Grolnick, W. S., & Slowiaczek, M. L. (1994). Parents’ involvement in children’s schooling: A multidimensional conceptualization and motivational model. Child Development,65(1), 237–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00747.x.
Guay, F., Ratelle, C. F., Roy, A., & Litalien, D. (2010). Academic self-concept, autonomous academic motivation, and academic achievement: Mediating and additive effects. Learning and Individual Differences,20(6), 644–653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.08.001.
Harter, S. (1982). The perceived competence scale for children. Child Development,53, 87–97.
Hau, K. T., & Marsh, H. W. (2004). The use of item parcels in structural equation modelling: Non-normal data and small sample sizes. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology,57(2), 327–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8317.2004.tb00142.x.
Hill, N. E., & Taylor, L. C. (2004). Parental school involvement and children’s academic achievement: Pragmatics and issues. Current directions in psychological science,13(4), 161–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00298.x.
Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology,45(3), 740–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015362.
Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Battiato, A. C., Walker, J. M., Reed, R. P., DeJong, J. M., & Jones, K. P. (2001). Parental involvement in homework. Educational Psychologist,36(3), 195–209. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3603_5.
Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., & Sandler, H. M. (1997). Why do parents become involved in their children’s education? Review of Educational Research,67(1), 3–42. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170618.
Hoyle, R. H. (1995). Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Jeynes, W. H. (2005). A meta-analysis of the relation of parental involvement to urban elementary school student academic achievement. Urban Education,40, 237–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085905274540.
Jeynes, W. H. (2007). The relationship between parental involvement and urban secondary school student academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Urban Education,42, 82–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085906293818.
Joussemet, M., Koestner, R., Lekes, N., & Landry, R. (2005). A longitudinal study of the relationship of maternal autonomy support to children’s adjustment and achievement in school. Journal of Personality,73(5), 1215–1236. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00347.x.
Joussemet, M., Landry, R., & Koestner, R. (2008). A self-determination theory perspective on parenting. Canadian Psychology,49(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012754.
Kenney-Benson, G. A., Pomerantz, E. M., Ryan, A. M., & Patrick, H. (2006). Sex differences in math performance: The role of children’s approach to schoolwork. Developmental Psychology,42(1), 11–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.1.11.
Kinlaw, C. R., & Kurtz-Costes, B. (2007). Children’s theories of intelligence: Beliefs, goals, and motivation in the elementary years. The Journal of General Psychology,134(3), 295–311. https://doi.org/10.3200/GENP.134.3.295-312.
Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Publications.
Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling,9(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1.
Marchant, G. J., Paulson, S. E., & Rothlisberg, B. A. (2001). Relations of middle school students’ perceptions of family and school contexts with academic achievement. Psychology in the Schools,38(6), 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.1039.
Marsh, H. W., Hau, K.-T., Balla, J. R., & Grayson, D. (1998). Is more ever too much? The number of indicators per factor in confirmatory factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Re- search,33, 181–220. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3302_1.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wolfson, A., Mumme, D., & Guskin, K. (1995). Helplessness in children of depressed and nondepressed mothers. Developmental Psychology,31(3), 377–387. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.3.377.
Núñez, J. C., Suárez, N., Rosário, P., Vallejo, G., Valle, A., & Epstein, J. L. (2015). Relationships between perceived parental involvement in homework, student homework behaviors, and academic achievement: Differences among elementary, junior high, and high school students. Metacognition and Learning,10(3), 375–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-015-9135-5.
Pomerantz, E. M., & Eaton, M. M. (2000). Developmental differences in children’s conceptions of parental control: ‘They love me, but they make me feel incompetent’. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly,46(1), 140–167.
Pomerantz, E. M., Wang, Q., & Ng, F. F. Y. (2005). Mothers’ affect in the homework context: The importance of staying positive. Developmental Psychology,41(2), 414–427. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.2.414.
Powell, D. R., Son, S.-H., File, N., & Froiland, J. M. (2012). Changes in parent involvement across the transition from public school prekindergarten to first grade and children’s academic outcomes. The Elementary School Journal,113(2), 276–300. https://doi.org/10.1086/667726.
Raykov, T., & Marcoulides, G. A. (2006). On multilevel model reliability estimation from the perspective of structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal,13(1), 130–141. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1301_7.
Robinson, K. (2014). The broken compass. London, England: Harvard University Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,57(5), 749–761. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.749.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. New York: Guilford Publications.
Shumow, L., & Miller, J. D. (2001). Parents’ at-home and at-school academic involvement with young adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence,21(1), 68–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431601021001004.
Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research,75(3), 417–453. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003417.
Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S. D., Dornbusch, S. M., & Darling, N. (1992). Impact of parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting, school involvement, and encouragement to succeed. Child Development,63(5), 1266–1281. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01694.x.
Stipek, D., & Iver, D. M. (1989). Developmental change in children’s assessment of intellectual competence. Child Development. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1989.tb02734.x.
Stright, A. D., & Yeo, K. L. (2014). Maternal parenting styles, school involvement, and children’s school achievement and conduct in Singapore. Journal of Educational Psychology,106(1), 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033821.
Topor, D. R., Keane, S. P., Shelton, T. L., & Calkins, S. D. (2010). Parent involvement and student academic performance: A multiple mediational analysis. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community,38(3), 183–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2010.486297.
Trauer, T., & Mackinnon, A. (2001). Why are we weighting? The role of importance ratings in quality of life measurement. Quality of Life Research,10(7), 579–585. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013159414364.
Vyverman, V., & Vettenburg, N. (2009). Parent participation at school: A research study on the perspectives of children. Childhood,16(1), 105–123. https://doi.org/10.1177/0907568208101693.
Wellborn, J. P., & Grolnick, W. S. (1988). The parenting context questionnaire. Unpublished manual, University of Rochester.
Wilder, S. (2014). Effects of parental involvement on academic achievement: A meta-synthesis. Educational Review,66(3), 377–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2013.780009.
Xiang, S., Liu, Y., & Bai, L. (2017). Parenting styles and adolescents’ school adjustment: Investigating the mediating role of achievement goals within the 2 × 2 framework. Frontiers in Psychology,8, 1809–1822. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01809.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix
Appendix
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lerner, R.E., Grolnick, W.S. Maternal involvement and children’s academic motivation and achievement: The roles of maternal autonomy support and children’s affect. Motiv Emot 44, 373–388 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09813-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09813-6