Skip to main content

Perfectionism and emotion regulation in coaches: A test of the 2 × 2 model of dispositional perfectionism

Motivation and Emotion volume 38, pages 715–726 (2014)Cite this article

Abstract

The manner in which coaches regulate their emotions has implications for their performance and well-being. Drawing on research that has found perfectionism to predict emotion regulation in other settings, this study adopted the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism to examine whether subtypes of perfectionism among coaches were associated with variation in the use of emotion regulation strategies. Coaches (N = 238, M age = 23.92, SD = 10.32) from various sports completed measures of perfectionism (personal standards and evaluative concerns) and emotion regulation strategies (expressive suppression, cognitive reappraisal, and control of anger directed inwards and outwards). Moderated hierarchical regression provided mixed support for the 2 × 2 model. As expected, pure personal standards perfectionism (high standards/low concerns) was generally associated with the highest capacity for emotion regulation and pure evaluative concerns perfectionism (low standards/high concerns) with the lowest. Unexpectedly, mixed perfectionism (high standards/high concerns) was associated with the highest level of expressive suppression, suggesting that in some instances standards might exacerbate rather than attenuate concerns.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Notes

  1. Exploration of this model to identify areas of misfit indicated that none of the standardized residual covariances exceeded 2.58 but two exceeded 1.96 (personal standards with parental pressure = −2.30 and personal standards with concern over mistakes = 2.30) and therefore provided two statistically significant discrepancies in the implied and observed data (Byrne 2001). Modification indices indicated that improvement in fit (so to exceed conventional criteria for ‘good’ fit) would be gained through re-specification of the model allowing for cross-loading of some of the sub-dimensions of perfectionism on latent factors (notably an inverse loadings of parental pressure on PSP and positive loading of concern over mistakes on PSP): χ2 (6) = 19.51, CFI = .97, TLI = .92, RMSEA = .10, 90 % CI .05–.15, SRMR = .05. Given that the assumption of zero cross-loadings may be overly restrictive in this context (Marsh et al. 2009), the observed fit here was considered acceptable.

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 217–237. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (2010). Amos 19.0.0. Chicago, IL: Smallwaters.

  • Bergman, A. J., Nyland, J. E., & Burns, L. R. (2007). Correlates with perfectionism and the utility of a dual process model. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 389–399. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bresin, K., & Robinson, M. D. (2013). Losing control, literally: Relations between anger control, trait anger, and motor control. Cognition and Emotion, 27, 995–1012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S., & Aiken, L. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analyses for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Côté, J., & Gilbert, W. (2009). An integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 4, 307–323. doi:10.1260/174795409789623892.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Clara, I. P. (2002). The multidimensional structure of perfectionism in clinically distressed and college student samples. Psychological Assessment, 14, 365–373. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.14.3.365.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cumming, J., & Duda, J. L. (2012). Profiles of perfectionism, body-related concerns, and indicators of psychological health in vocational dance students: An investigation of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 729–738. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.05.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, P. A. (2011). Angry athletes: Psychological, physiological, and performance implications. In J. P. Welty (Ed.), Psychology of anger: Symptoms, causes and coping. New York, NY: Nova Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, L., & Jowett, S. (2010). Investigating the interpersonal dynamics between coaches and athletes based on fundamental principles of attachment theory. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4, 112–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, P. A., Woodman, T., & Callow, N. (2010). Better out than in: The influence of anger regulation on physical performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 457–460. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.04.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life’s domains. Canadian Psychology, 49, 14–23. doi:10.1037/0708-5591.49.1.14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Douilliez, C., & Lefèvre, F. (2011). Interactive effect of perfectionism dimensions on depressive symptoms: A reply to Gaudreau and Thompson (2010). Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1147–1151. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.02.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, J. G. H., Gotwals, J. K., Causgrove Dunn, J., & Syrotuik, D. G. (2006). Examining the relationship between perfectionism and trait anger in competitive sport. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4, 7–24. doi:10.1080/1612197X.2006.9671781.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Enns, M. W., & Cox, B. J. (2002). Nature and assessment of perfectionism. In G. L. Flett & P. L. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 33–62). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flett, A., Besser, P., & Hewitt, P. (2005). Perfectionism, ego defense styles, and depression: A comparison of self-reports versus informant ratings. Journal of Personality, 73, 1355–1396. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00352.x.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2006). Positive versus negative perfectionism in psychopathology. Behaviour Modification, 30, 472–495. doi:10.1177/0145445506288026.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & De Rosa, T. (1996). Dimensions of perfectionism, psychosocial adjustment and social skills. Personality and Individual Differences, 20, 143–150. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00170-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, R. O., Heimberg, R. G., Holt, C. S., Mattia, J. I., & Neubauer, A. L. (1993). A comparison of two measures of perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 119–126. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(93)90181-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 5, 449–468. doi:10.1007/BF01172967.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Funkenstein, D. H., King, S. H., & Drolette, M. E. (1954). The direction of anger during a laboratory stress-inducing situation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 16, 404–413.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garnefski, N., Teerds, J., Kraaij, V., Legerstee, J., & Van Den Kommer, T. (2004). Cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms, differences between males and females. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 267–276. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00083-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaudreau, P. (2012). A methodological note on the interactive and main effects of dualistic personality dimensions: An example using the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 26–31. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.08.022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaudreau, P. (2013). The 2 × 2 model of perfectionism: Commenting the critical comments and suggestions of Stoeber (2012). Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 351–355. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaudreau, P., & Antl, S. (2008). Athletes’ broad dimensions of perfectionism: Examining change in life-satisfaction and the mediating role of motivation and coping. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30, 356–382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaudreau, P., & Thompson, A. (2010). Testing a 2 × 2 model of dispositional perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 532–537. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.031.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaudreau, P., & Verner-Filion, J. (2012). Dispositional perfectionism and well-being: A test of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism in the sport domain. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1, 29–43. doi:10.1037/a0025747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gotwals, J. K., Stoeber, J., Dunn, J. G. H., & Stoll, O. (2012). Are perfectionistic strivings in sport adaptive? A systematic review of confirmatory, contradictory, and mixed evidence. Canadian Psychology, 53, 263–279. doi:10.1037/a0030288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, J. W., Cumsille, P. E., & Elek-Fisk, E. (2003). Methods for handling missing data. In J. A. Schinka & W. F. Velicer (Eds.), Research methods in psychology (pp. 87–112). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 224–237. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348–362. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanin, Y. L. (2000). Successful and poor performance and emotions. In Y. L. Hanin (Ed.), Emotions in sport (pp. 157–187). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haukkala, A., Konttinen, H., Laatikainen, T., Kawachi, I., & Uutela, A. (2010). Hostility, anger control, and anger expression as predictors of cardiovascular disease. Psychosomatic Medicine, 72, 556–562. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181dbab87.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haver, A., Akerjordet, K., & Furunes, T. (2013). Emotion regulation and its implications for leadership: An integrative review and future research agenda. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 20, 287–303. doi:10.1177/1548051813485438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., Caelian, C. F., Flett, G. L., Sherry, S. B., Collins, L., & Flynn, C. A. (2002). Perfectionism in children: Associations with depression, anxiety and anger. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1049–1061. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00109-X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456–470. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.456.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, A. P. (2013). Perfectionism and athlete burnout: A test of the 2 × 2 model of dispositional perfectionism. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 35, 18–29.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iyer, P., Korin, M. R., Higginbotham, L., & Davidson, K. W. (2010). Anger, anger expression, and health. In R. M. Kaplan (Ed.), Handbook of health psychology and behavioral medicine (pp. 120–132). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jowett, S., & Nezlek, J. B. (2012). Relationship interdependence and satisfaction with important outcomes in coach–athlete dyads. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 29, 287–301. doi:10.1177/0265407511420980.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keegan, R., Harwood, C., Spray, C., & Lavallee, D. (2009). A qualitative investigation exploring the motivational climate in early-career sports participants: Coach, parent and peer influences on sport motivation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 361–372. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.12.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, G., & Stirling, A. E. (2012). Parents’ reflections on their child’s experiences of emotionally abusive coaching practices. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24, 191–206. doi:10.1080/10413200.2011.608413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 4–41. doi:10.1080/02699930802619031.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lafrenière, M.-A. K., Jowett, S., Vallerand, R. J., & Carbonneau, N. (2011). Passion for coaching and the quality of the coach–athlete relationship: The mediating role of coaching behaviors. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12, 144–152. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.08.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lane, A. M., Beedie, C., Jones, M. V., Uphill, M., & Devonport, T. (2012). The BASES expert statement on emotion regulation in sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 30, 1189–1195. doi:10.1080/02640414.2012.693621.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lane, A. M., Davis, P. A., & Devonport, T. J. (2011). Effects of music interventions on emotional states and running performance. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 10, 400–407.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorimer, R. (2013). The development of empathic accuracy in sports coaches. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 4, 26–33. doi:10.1080/21520704.2012.706696.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Muthen, B., Asparouhov, T., Luedtke, O., Robitzch, A., Morin, A. J. S., et al. (2009). Exploratory structural equation modeling, integrating CFA and EFA: Application to students’ evaluations of university teaching. Structural Equation Modeling—A multidisciplinary Journal, 16, 439–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R. C., & Dahlen, E. R. (2005). Cognitive emotion regulation in the prediction of depression, anxiety, stress, and anger. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 1249–1260. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.06.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Omli, J., & LaVoi, N. M. (2009). The perfect storm: Background anger in youth sports. Journal of Sport Behavior, 32, 242–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Opitz, P. C., Gross, J. J., & Urry, H. L. (2012). Selection, optimization, and compensation in the domain of emotion regulation: Applications to adolescence, older age, and major depressive disorder. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6, 142–155. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00413.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, J. M., & Gross, J. J. (2000). Emotion regulation and memory: The cognitive costs of keeping one’s cool. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 410–424. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.3.410.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robazza, C., & Bortoli, L. (2007). Perceived impact of anger and anxiety on sporting performance in rugby players. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 875–896. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.07.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz, M., & Hanin, Y. (2011). Perceived impact of anger on performance of skilled karate athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12, 242–249. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.01.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D. (1999). Manual for the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoeber, J. (2012). The 2 × 2 model of perfectionism: A critical comment and some suggestions. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 541–545. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.029.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence and challenges. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 295–319. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, P., Paquette, K., Holt, N., & Bloom, G. (2012). The relation of coaching context and coach education to coaching efficacy and perceived leadership behaviors in youth sport. Sport Psychologist, 26, 122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamir, M. (2009). What do people want to feel and why? Pleasure and utility in emotion regulation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 101–105. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01617.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tamir, M., Chiu, C.-Y., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Business or pleasure? Utilitarian versus hedonic considerations in emotion regulation. Emotion, 7, 546–554. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.3.546.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tamir, M., & Mauss, I. B. (2011). Social cognitive factors in emotion regulation: Implications for well-being. In I. Nyklicek, A. Vingerhoets, M. Zeelenberg, & J. Donellet (Eds.), Emotion regulation and well-being (pp. 31–47). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-6953-8_3.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tashman, L. S., Tenenbaum, G., & Eklund, R. (2010). The effect of perceived stress on the relationship between perfectionism and burnout in coaches. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 23, 195–212. doi:10.1080/10615800802629922.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uphill, M. A., Lane, A. M., & Jones, M. V. (2012). Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for use with athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 761–770. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.05.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uphill, M. A., McCarthy, P. J., & Jones, M. V. (2009). Getting a grip on emotion regulation in sport: Conceptual foundations and practical applications. In S. Hanton & S. Mellalieu (Eds.), Advances in applied sport psychology (pp. 162–194). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vallance, J. K. H., Dunn, J. G. H., & Causgrove Dunn, J. L. (2006). Perfectionism, anger, and situation criticality in competitive youth ice hockey. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 28, 383–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Kleef, G. A. (2009). How emotions regulate social life the emotions as social information (EASI) model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 184–188. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01633.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagstaff, C., Fletcher, D., & Hanton, S. (2012). Exploring emotion abilities and regulation strategies in sport organizations. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1, 268–282. doi:10.1037/a0028814.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK

    Andrew P. Hill

  2. Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK

    Paul A. Davis

Authors
  1. Andrew P. Hill
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul A. Davis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andrew P. Hill.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hill, A.P., Davis, P.A. Perfectionism and emotion regulation in coaches: A test of the 2 × 2 model of dispositional perfectionism. Motiv Emot 38, 715–726 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9404-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9404-7

Keywords

  • Motivation
  • Sport
  • Performance