Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Mental contrasting with implementation intentions enhances self-regulation of goal pursuit in schoolchildren at risk for ADHD

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Motivation and Emotion Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Self-regulation is an important prerequisite for successful academic achievement, particularly for children who are at risk for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). We taught Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions (MCII), a technique that is known to facilitate the self-regulation of goal pursuit, to schoolchildren (sixth- and seventh-graders) both at risk and not at risk for ADHD. Parents rated their children’s level of self-regulation 2 weeks after the intervention. Children at risk and not at risk benefited from MCII more than from a learning style intervention only and the benefits of MCII were particularly strong for children at risk for ADHD. The results have implications with respect to supporting children’s self-regulation in their everyday school lives.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aarts, H., Dijksterhuis, A., & Midden, C. (1999). To plan or not to plan? Goal achievement or interrupting the performance of mundane behaviors. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 971–979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adriaanse, M. A., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., Hennes, E. P., de Ridder, D. T. D., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2010). When planning is not enough: Breaking unhealthy snacking habits with mental contrasting and implementation intentions (MCII). European Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 1277–1293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbeitsgruppe Deutsche Child Behavior Checklist [Working Group German Child Behavior Checklist] (1998). Elternfragebogen über das Verhalten von Kindern und Jugendlichen. Deutsche Bearbeitung der Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/4-18) [German consensus version of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/4-18)]. Köln: Arbeitsgruppe Kinder-, Jugend- und Familiendiagnostik (KJFD).

  • August, G. J., & Garfinkel, B. D. (1989). Behavioral and cognitive subtypes of ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 739–748.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2010). Motivation. In S. Fiske, D. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (5th ed., pp. 268–316). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, I. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2011). Self-regulatory strength. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (2nd ed., pp. 64–82). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayer, U. C., Achtziger, A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Moskowitz, G. (2009). Responding to subliminal cues: Do if-then plans cause action preparation and initiation without conscious intent? Social Cognition, 27, 183–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertrams, A., & Dickhäuser, O. (2009). Messung dispositioneller Selbstkontroll-Kapazität: Eine deutsche Adaptation der Kurzform der Self-Control Scale (SCS-K-D) [Measurement of self-control: A German adaptation of the short-version of the self-control scale]. Diagnostica, 55, 2–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandstätter, V., Lengfelder, A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2001). Implementation intentions and efficient action initiation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 946–960.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2011). Self-regulation of action and affect. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (2nd ed., pp. 3–12). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cattell, R. B., Krug, S. E., & Barton, K. (1973). Technical supplement for the culture fair intelligence tests, scales 2 and 3. Champaign: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christiansen, S., Oettingen, G., Dahme, B., & Klinger, R. (2010). A short goal-pursuit intervention to improve physical capacity: A randomized clinical trial in chronic back pain patients. Pain, 149, 444–452.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Döpfner, M., & Lehmkuhl, G. (2000). Diagnostik-System für Psychische Störungen im Kindes- und Jugendalter nach ICD-10 und DSM-IV (DISYPS-KJ), 2. korrigierte und ergänzte Auflage [Children diagnostic system for psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence, 2nd edn]. Bern: Huber.

  • Döpfner, M., Lehmkuhl, G., & Steinhausen, H. C. (2006). KIDS Kinder-Diagnostik-System 1. ADHS [Children diagnostic system 1. ADHD]. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

  • Duckworth, A. L. (2011). The significance of self-control. PNAS, 108, 2639–2640.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., Grant, H., Loew, B., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2011). Self-regulation strategies improve self-discipline in adolescents: Benefits of mental contrasting and implementation intentions. Educational Psychology, 31, 17–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16, 939–944.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, R., Dunn, K., & Price, G. E. (1984). Learning style inventory. Lawrence, KS, USA: Price Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. J., & Stoner, G. (2003). ADHD in the schools: Assessment and intervention strategies (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fallgatter, A. J., Ehlis, A. C., Seifert, J., Strik, W. K., Scheuerpflug, P., Zillessen, K. E., et al. (2004). Altered response control and anterior cingulate function in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder boys. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115, 973–981.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, T. W., Youngstrom, E. A., Glutting, J. J., & Watkins, M. W. (2007). ADHD and achievement: Meta-analysis of the child, adolescent, and adult literatures and a concomitant study with college students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 49–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gawrilow, C., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2008). Implementation intentions facilitate response inhibition in children with ADHD. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 261–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gawrilow, C., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2011a). If-then plans benefit executive functions in children with ADHD. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30, 616–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gawrilow, C., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2011b). If-then plans benefit delay of gratification performance in children with and without ADHD. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 35, 442–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2011). Planning promotes goal striving. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, A., Oettingen, G., Kirby, T., Duckworth, A., & Mayer, D. (2011). Mental contrasting facilitates academic performance in school children. Motivation and Emotion, 35, 403–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes. Advances of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Honey, P., & Mumford, A. (2006). The learning styles questionnaire, 80-item version. Maidenhead: UK, Peter Honey Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Houts, R. M., Caspi, A., Pianta, R. C., Arseneault, L., & Moffitt, T. E. (2010). The challenging pupil in the classroom: The effect of the child on the teacher. Psychological Science. Advance online publication,. doi:10.1177/0956797610388047.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huss, M., Hölling, H., Kurth, B., & Schlack, R. (2008). How often are German children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD? Prevalence based on the judgment of health care professionals: Results of the German health and examination survey (KiGGS). European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 52–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johannessen, K., Oettingen, G., & Mayer, D. Mental contrasting of a dieting wish improves self-reported health behaviour. Psychology and Health. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.626038 (in press).

  • Kappes, A., Singmann, H., & Oettingen, G. Mental contrasting instigates goal-pursuit by linking obstacles of reality with instrumental behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (in press).

  • Kappes, A., & Oettingen, G. (2012). The emer gence of goals: Mental contrasting connects future and reality. (Manuscript under revision).

  • Kirk, D., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2011). Promoting integrative bargaining: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions. International Journal of Conflict Management, 22, 324–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lauth, G., & Naumann, K. (2009). ADHS in der Schule [ADHD in the school]. Weinheim: Beltz.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G. (2000). Expectancy effects on behavior depend on self-regulatory thought. Social Cognition, 18, 101–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G. Future thought and behavior change. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European Review of Social Psychology (in press).

  • Oettingen, G., Wittchen, M., & Gollwitzer, P. M. Regulating goal pursuit through mental contrasting with implementation intentions. In E. A. Locke, & G. P. Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance. New York, NY: Routledge (in press).

  • Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2010). Strategies of setting and implementing goals: Mental contrasting and implementation intentions. In J. E. Maddux & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Social psychological foundations of clinical psychology (pp. 114–135). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G., Mayer, D., Sevincer, A. T., Stephens, E. J., Pak, H., & Hagenah, M. (2009). Mental contrasting and goal commitment: The mediating role of energization. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 608–622.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G., Mayer, D., Thorpe, J. S., Janetzke, H., & Lorenz, S. (2005). Turning fantasies about positive and negative futures into self-improvement goals. Motivation and Emotion, 29, 237–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G., Pak, H., & Schnetter, K. (2001). Self-regulation of goal-setting: Turning free fantasies about the future into binding goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736–753.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G., Stephens, E. J., Mayer, D., & Brinkmann, B. (2010). Mental contrasting and the self-regulation of helping relations. Social Cognition, 28, 490–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parks-Stamm, E. J., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2007). Action control by implementation intentions: Effective cue detection and efficient response initiation. Social Cognition, 25, 248–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2009). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9, 105–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, I., Gawrilow, C., Zech, F., Gollwitzer, P. M., Rockstroh, B., Odenthal, G., et al. (2007). If-then planning modulates the P300 in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. NeuroReport, 18, 653–657.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, R., Trout, A. L., & Schartz, M. (2005). Self-regulation interventions for children with ADHD. Exceptional Children, 71, 361–377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riccio, C. A., Homack, S., Pizzitola-Jarratt, K., & Wolfe, M. E. (2006). Differences in academic and executive function domains among children with ADHD predominantly inattentive and combined. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21, 657–667.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheeran, P., Webb, T. L., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2005). The interplay between goal intentions and implementation intentions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 87–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shoda, Y., Mischel, W., & Peake, P. K. (1990). Predicting adolescent cognitive and self-regulatory competencies from preschool delay of gratification: Identifying diagnostic conditions. Developmental Psychology, 26, 978–986.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stadler, G., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2009). Physical activity in women: Effects of a self-regulation intervention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36, 29–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stadler, G., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2010). Intervention effects of information and self-regulation on eating fruits and vegetables over two years. Health Psychology, 29, 274–283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271–324.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2004). Identifying good opportunities to act: Implementation intentions and cue discrimination. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 407–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 249–268.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2007). How do implementation intentions promote goal attainment? A test of component processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 295–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2008). Mechanisms of implementation intention effects: The role of goal intentions, self-efficacy, and accessibility of plan components. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 373–395.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wei , R. H. (1998). CFT-20. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (1991). International classification of diseases and related health problems (10th rev). Geneva: WHO.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF), Center for Individual Development and Adaptive Education of Children at Risk (IDeA), Goethe-University of Frankfurt, Mertonstr. 17, 60325, Frankfurt, Germany

    Caterina Gawrilow

  2. University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

    Katrin Morgenroth, Regina Schultz & Gabriele Oettingen

  3. New York University, New York, NY, USA

    Gabriele Oettingen & Peter M. Gollwitzer

  4. University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany

    Peter M. Gollwitzer

Authors
  1. Caterina Gawrilow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Katrin Morgenroth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Regina Schultz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Gabriele Oettingen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Peter M. Gollwitzer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Caterina Gawrilow.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gawrilow, C., Morgenroth, K., Schultz, R. et al. Mental contrasting with implementation intentions enhances self-regulation of goal pursuit in schoolchildren at risk for ADHD. Motiv Emot 37, 134–145 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9288-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9288-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation