Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mindfulness as a moderator of the effect of implicit motivational self-concept on day-to-day behavioral motivation

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Motivation and Emotion Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Drawing from theories regarding the role of awareness in behavioral self-regulation, this research was designed to examine the role of mindfulness as a moderator between implicit motivation and the motivation for day-to-day behavior. We hypothesized that dispositional mindfulness (Brown and Ryan, J Pers Soc Psychol, 84, 822–848, 2003) would act to modify the expression of implicit autonomy orientation in daily behavioral motivation. Using the Implicit Association Test (Greenwald et al. J Pers Soc Psychol, 74, 1464–1480, 1998), Study 1 provided evidence for the reliability and validity of a new measure of implicit autonomy orientation. Using an experience-sampling strategy, Study 2 showed the hypothesized moderating effect, such that implicit autonomy orientation predicted day-to-day motivation only for those lower in dispositional mindfulness. Those higher in mindfulness showed more autonomously motivated behavior regardless of implicit orientation toward autonomy or heteronomy. It also showed that this moderating effect of awareness was specific to mindfulness and was primarily manifest in spontaneous behavior. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for dual process theory and research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. It is important to distinguish this use of the term “autonomy” from that used in the social cognition literature, in which autonomy is equated with automatic processing without conscious guidance (e.g., Bargh et al. 2001; Wegner and Bargh 1998).

  2. One of these IAT tasks was of interest to other, unpublished research.

  3. Because the stimulus words me and free were used as category labels in the dispositional autonomy IAT in both Study 1 and 2, we deleted all trials using these words before calculating the IAT effect. Inclusion of these trials did not meaningfully alter the results in either study.

  4. Similarly, no gender effects were found on these measures in Study 2.

  5. Other, unpublished research from our laboratories has shown no relation between either implicit measure and BIDR-assessed self-presentation biases, suggesting that the correlation found here may be unreliable.

  6. Cyclicity is typically tested using either a dummy variable approach or the trigonometric function approach used here (see Bowerman and O’Connell 1993). The fit of a sine function was also examined here, but across analyses, a cosine function consistently provided a better fit. We tested for septurnal, or 7-day weekly cyclicity because this is the most common interval over which cyclical effects have been reported in autonomy (Reis et al. 2000).

  7. The day and time that each record form was completed was used to create a continuous time variable which started at day 1, record 1, and ran linearly upward to day 14, record 3 (see Schwartz and Stone 1998). For each sampling record, the number of minutes after the pager signal that the form was completed was subtracted from the actual time of record completion to derive the actual time that each record’s data referred to.

  8. In this study, the absence of a significant relation between implicit dispositional autonomy and day-to-day motivation for behavior among more mindful individuals was not due to a restriction of range in the levels of day-to-day autonomy for these individuals. The correlation between mean level of mindfulness and the standard deviation of day-to-day autonomy scores was r = .06, p = .62. We thank an anonymous reviewer for suggesting a test of this alternative interpretation of the results.

  9. This study also included the same explicit and implicit attitude measures used in Study 1. Results replicated those of Study 1. Neither set of attitude measures predicted daily nor retrospectively assessed behavioral motivation.

  10. Preliminary analyses on the data from Study 2 also tested whether the effects of explicit autonomy on day-to-day and retrospective motivation were moderated by mindfulness. No significant interaction effects were found.

References

  • Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2000). Habits as knowledge structures: Automaticity in goal-directed behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 53–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aiken, L. A. (1996). Rating scales and checklists: Evaluating behavior, personality, and attitudes. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. New York: Westview.

    Google Scholar 

  • Asendorpf, J. B., Banse, R., & Mücke, D. (2002). Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: The case of shy behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 380–393.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bargh, J. A. (1997). Automaticity in social psychology. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 169–183). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bargh, J. A., & Barndollar, K. (1996). Automaticity in action: The unconscious as repository of chronic goals and motives. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 457–481). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Lee-Chai, A., Barndollar, K., & Trotschel, R. (2001). The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1014–1027.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (1999). The nature and structure of the self: An overview. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), The self in social psychology (pp. 1–20). Philadelphia: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F., & Tice, D. M. (1994). Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation. San Diego: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1979). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: New American Library.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bermúdez, J. L. (1998). The paradox of self-consciousness. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosson, J. K., Swann, W. B., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2000). Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 631–643.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowerman, B. L., & O’Connell, R. T. (1993). Forecasting and time-series (3rd ed.). Belmont: Duxbury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability and convergent validity. Psychological Science, 12, 163–170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1980). Self-determination theory: When mind mediates behavior. The Journal of Mind and Behavior, 1, 33–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Vol 38. Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237–288). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deikman, A. J. (1966). De-automatization and the mystic experience. Psychiatry, 29, 324–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dijksterhuis, A. P. (2004). I like myself but I don’t know why: Enhancing implicit self-esteem by subliminal evaluative conditioning. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 86, 345–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dijksterhuis, A. P., & van Knippenberg, A. D. (2000). Behavioral indecision: Effects of self-focus on automatic behavior. Social Cognition, 18, 55–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2002). Predictive validity of an implicit association test for assessing anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1441–1455.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M. F., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness:Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, M. M., & Brenman, M. (1959). Hypnosis and related states: Psychoanalytic studies in regression. New York: International University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022–1038.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197–216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hefferline, R. F., Keenan, B., & Harford, R. A. (1959). Escape and avoidance conditioning in human subjects without their observation of the response. Science, 130, 1338–1339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann, W., Gschwendner, T., & Schmitt, M. (2005). On implicit-explicit consistency: The moderating role of individual differences in awareness and adjustment. European Journal of Personality, 19, 25–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain and illness. New York: Delacourt.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, L. A. (1995). Wishes, motives, goals, and personal memories: Relations of measures of human motivation. Journal of Personality, 63, 985–1007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levesque, C., & Pelletier, L. G. (2003). On the investigation of primed and chronic autonomous and heteronomous motivational orientations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1570–1584.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Litt, M. D., Cooney, N. L., & Morse, P. (1998). Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) with treated alcoholics: Methodological problems and potential solutions. Health Psychology, 17, 48–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macrae, C. N., & Johnston, L. (1998). Help, I need somebody: Automatic action and inaction. Social Cognition, 16, 400–417.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690–702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, J. P., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Contextual variations in implicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 455–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norman, D. A., & Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in theory and research (Vol. 4, pp. 1–18). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). The Go/No Go Association Task. Social Cognition, 19, 625–664.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2002). (At least) two factors moderate the relationship between implicit and explicit attitudes. In R. K. Ohme & M. Jarymowicz (Eds.), Natura Automatyzmow (pp. 49–56). Warszawa: WIP PAN and SWPS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: II Method variables and construct validity. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 166–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulhus, D. L. (1991). Measurement and control of response bias: In J. P. Robinson & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. Measures of social psychological attitudes (Vol. 1, pp. 17–59). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000) Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 419–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudman, L. A., Greenwald, A. G., Mellott, D. S., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1999). Measuring the automatic components of prejudice: Flexibility and generality of the Implicit Association Test. Social Cognition, 17, 437–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749–761.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic, motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of self-determination theory. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2004). Autonomy is no illusion: Self-determination theory and the empirical study of authenticity, awareness, and will. In J. Greenberg, S. Koole, & T. Pyszczynski (Eds.), Handbook of experimental existential psychology (pp. 449–479). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SAS Institute. (1997). SAS/STAT software: Changes and enhancements through release 6.12. Cary: Author.

  • Schnabel, K., Banse, R., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2006). Assessment of implicit personality self-concept using the Implicit Association Test (IAT): Concurrent assessment of anxiousness and angriness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 45, 373–396.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, W., Eschman, A., & Zuccolotto, A. (2002). E-Prime user’s guide. Pittsburgh: Psychology Software Tools Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, J. E., & Stone, A. A. (1998). Strategies for analyzing ecological momentary assessment data. Health Psychology, 17, 6–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segal, Z., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: A new approach to preventing relapse. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shiffman S. (2000). Real time self-report of momentary states in the natural environment: Computerized ecological momentary assessment. In A. A. Stone et al. (Eds.), The science of self report: Implications for research and practice (pp. 277–296). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spangler, W. D. (1992). Validity of questionnaire and TAT measures of need for achievement: Two meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 140–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D. (1999). Emotional processing, three modes of mind and the prevention of relapse in depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 53–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 284–304.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wegner, D. M., & Bargh, J. A. (1998). Control and automaticity in social life. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 446–496). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westen, D. (1998). Unconscious thought, feeling and motivation: The end of a century-long debate. In R. F. Bornstein & J. M. Mesling (Eds.), Empirical perspectives on the psychoanalytic unconscious (pp. 1–43). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wild, K. P. (1999). Time sampling procedures with Random 2.1: Introduction and user’s guide. Neubiberg, Germany: University of the Armed Forces, Munich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, T. D. (2002). Strangers to ourselves: Discovering the adaptive unconscious. Cambridge: Belknap Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y. (2000). A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review, 107, 101–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrinch, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was facilitated by a grant from the Positive Psychology Summer Institute and a Missouri State University Summer Faculty Fellowship to Chantal Levesque. We thank La Toya McQuater, Chris Niemiec, and Layla Stanek for research assistance, and Michaela Hynie, Harry Reis, and members of the University of Rochester Motivation Research Group for helpful comments on a draft of this article.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Kirk Warren Brown

    Present address: Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychology Department, Missouri State University, 901 S. National, Springfield, MO, 65897, USA

    Chantal Levesque

  2. University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA

    Kirk Warren Brown

Authors
  1. Chantal Levesque
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kirk Warren Brown
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chantal Levesque.

Additional information

The authors have contributed equally to this article.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Levesque, C., Brown, K.W. Mindfulness as a moderator of the effect of implicit motivational self-concept on day-to-day behavioral motivation. Motiv Emot 31, 284–299 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-007-9075-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-007-9075-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation