Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

When Effort Is Enjoyed: Two Studies of Intrinsic Motivation for Personally Salient Activities

Motivation and Emotion Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Cite this article

Abstract

Distinctions between two philosophical conceptions of happiness, hedonism and eudaimonism, were applied to the study of intrinsic motivation. Modified versions of the Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire (PEAQ) were used in two studies to contrast activities, all of which were enjoyed, but which differed in the level of effort involved. In Study 1, 173 college students were free to choose any type of activity that met the selection criteria. In Study 2, the activities chosen by 95 undergraduates were limited to activities associated with a particular leisure time or hobby activity in which the respondents engaged on a regular basis. Consistent results across the two studies indicate that High Effort–Liked activities, in comparison to Low Effort–Liked activities, were associated with greater interest, flow, and feelings of personal expressiveness, greater perceived competence, and higher scores for both self-realization values and importance. These differences are discussed for their implications for the conceptual understanding of intrinsic motivation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ackrill, J. L. (1973). Aristotle's ethics. London: Faber and Faber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aristotle. (1985). Nichomachean ethics (T. Irwin, Trans.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.

  • Assor, A., Kaplan, H., & Roth, G. (2002). Choice is good, but relevance is excellent: Autonomy enhancing and suppressing teacher behaviours predicting students' engagement in schoolwork. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 261–278.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentham, J. (1962). An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. In J. Bowring (Ed.). The works of Jeremy Bentham. New York: Russell & Russell. (Original work published 1789).

  • Boggiano, A. K., Main, D., & Katz, P. A. (1988). Children's preference for challenge: The role of perceived competence and control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 134–141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Baird, E. (1998). The American dream revisited: Is it what you want or why you want it that matters? Psychological Science, 9, 289–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). The flow experience and its significance for human psychology. In M. Csikszentmihaly & I. S. Csikszentmihalyi (Eds.). Opitmal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness (pp. 15–35). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement in everyday life. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curry, F., Biddle, S., Famose, J.-P., & Goudas, M. (1996). Personality and situational factors influencing intrinsic interest of adolescent girls in school physical education: A structural equation modeling analysis. Educational Psychololgy, 16, 305–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Spinoza, B. (1951). The ethics. In The chief works of Benedict de Spinoza (R. H. M. Elwes, Trans.). New York: Dover: (Original work published 1677).

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dwyer, J. M. (1993). Effect of perceived choice of music on exercise intrinsic motivation. Health Values: The Journal of Health Behavior, Education, and Promotion, 19(2), 18–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., Faler, J., McGregor, H. A., Campbell, W. K., Sedikides, C., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2000). Competence valuation as a strategic intrinsic motivation process. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 780–794.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emmons, R. A. (1999). The psychology of ultimate concerns: Motivation and spirituality in personality. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Felixbrod, J. J., & O'Leary, K. D. (1973). Effects of reinforcement on children's academic behavior as a function of self-determined and externally imposed contingencies. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 241–250.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fromm, E. (1947). Man for himself: An inquiry into the psychology of ethics. New York: Fawcett.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graef, R., Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Giannino, S. M. (1983). Measuring intrinsic motivation in everyday life. Leisure Studies, 2, 155–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). A dark side of the American dream: Correlates of financial success as a central life aspiration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 410–422.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1996). Further examining the American dream: Well-being correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 281–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krapp, A., Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (1992). Interest, learning, and development. In K. A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.). The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 3–26). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraut, R. (1979). Two conceptions of happiness. Philosophical Review, 87, 167–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaMore, K., & Nelson, D. L. (1993). The effect of options on performance of an art project in adults with mental disabilities. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 47, 397–401.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R., & Graham, W. K. (1986). Self-actualization need strength: Moderator of relationships between job characteristics and job outcomes. Journal of Employment Counseling, 23, 38–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R., McCabe, D. J., & Graham, W. K. (1983). Multivariate relationship between job characteristics and job satisfaction in the public sector: A triple cross-validation study. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 18, 47–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDowell, J. (1980). The role of eudaimonia in Aristotle's ethics. In A. O. Rorty (Ed.). Essays on Aristotle's ethics (pp. 359–376). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norton, D. L. (1976). Personal destinies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plato. (1937). The dialogues of Plato (B. Jowett, Trans.). New York: Random House.

  • Pryor, S. K. (1999). The effect of contingency contracting on enhancing intrinsic motivation and exercise behavior in ten and eleven year old girls. Dissertation Abstracts, 59, 5313.

  • Reeve, J., & Deci, E. L. (1996). Elements of the competitive situation that affect intrinsic motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 24–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M. (1993). Agency and organization: Intrinsic motivation, autonomy and the self in psychological development. In J. Jacobs (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Developmental perspectives on motivation (Vol. 40, pp. 1–56). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sansone, C., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). “I don't feel like it”: The function of interest in self-regulation. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.). Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp. 203–228). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

  • Schwartz, S. J., & Waterman, A. S. (2005). Changing interests: A longitudinal study of intrinsic motivation for personally salient activities. Manuscript under editorial review.

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1998). Not all personal goals are personal: Comparing autonomous and controlled reasons for goals as predictors of effort and attainment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 546–557.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tatarkiewicz, W. (1976). Analysis of happiness. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

    Google Scholar 

  • Telfer, E. (1980). Happiness. NewYork: St. Martin's Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J., & Ratelle, C. F. (2002). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A hierarchical model. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J., & Reid, G. (1984). On the causal effects of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive-evaluation theory. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 94–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S. (1990). Personal expressiveness: Philosophical and psychological foundations. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 11, 47–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S. (1992). Identity as an aspect of optimal psychological functioning. In G. R. Adams, T. Gullotta, & R. Montemayor (Eds.), Advances in adolescent development: Vol. 4. Identity formation during adolescence (pp. 50–72). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

  • Waterman, A. S. (1993a). Finding something to do or someone to be: A eudaemonist perspective on identity formation. In J. Kroger (Ed.). Discussions on ego identity (pp. 147–167). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S. (1993b). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 678–691.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S. (1998). The Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire: A manual. Unpublished manuscript.

  • Waterman, A. S., Schwartz, S. J., & Conti, R. (2005). The implications of two conceptions of happiness (hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonia) for the understanding of intrinsic motivation. Manuscript under editorial review.

  • Waterman, A. S., Schwartz, S. J., Goldbacher, E., Green, H., Miller, C., & Philip, S. (2003). Predicting the subjective experience of intrinsic motivation: The roles of self-determination, the balance of challenges and skills, and self-realization values. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1447–1458.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman, M., Porac, J., Lathin, D., Smith, R., & Deci, E. L. (1978). On the importance of self-determination for intrinsically motivated behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 443–446.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, New Jersey

    Alan S. Waterman

  2. Department of Psychology, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, New Jersey, P.O. Box 7718, 08628-0718

    Alan S. Waterman

Authors
  1. Alan S. Waterman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alan S. Waterman.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Waterman, A.S. When Effort Is Enjoyed: Two Studies of Intrinsic Motivation for Personally Salient Activities. Motiv Emot 29, 165–188 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-005-9440-4

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-005-9440-4

Keywords

search

Navigation