Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Disturbance and species composition drive canopy structure and distribution of large trees in Olympic rainforests, USA

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Landscape Ecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Context

Western Olympic valley bottoms, disturbed by alluvial processes, are dominated by Picea sitchensis and isolated cohorts of Pseudotsuga menziesii, while upland contexts, disturbed by wind and fire, are dominated by P. menziesii. These forests have distinct structure and produce large trees with habitat for endangered birds.

Objectives

Describe how disturbance and forest development create landscape forest patterns and distribution of large trees in valley bottom and upland forests.

Methods

LiDAR data of ~ 9700 ha within Olympic National Park, USA was classified based on vegetation height and percent cover to contrast valley bottom and upland forests. Within-crown structure from 36 P. sitchensis and 12 P. menziesii was then used to predict locations of the largest and most complex trees.

Results

Valley bottoms comprise small patches of dense tall (11%), medium-height trees (19%), and gaps (7%) embedded in open-canopy forest with scattered tall trees (63%). Upland forests comprise larger patches of tall (16%), medium (58%), and open-canopy forest (25%) with few gaps (1%). The largest trees are more abundant in valley bottoms (0.05 tree ha−1) than upland (0.02 tree ha−1) due to small patches of tall trees within open-canopy forest.

Conclusions

Alluvial disturbance, fungi-wind interaction, and dominance of late-successional fast-growing P. sitchensis create open-canopy forest with more large trees, while severe fire and wind interacting with P. menziesii create patchy closed-canopy forest with fewer large trees. Management for large habitat trees should use aggregated retention with P. menziesii, multi-aged selection techniques with P. sitchensis, and indefinitely retain a low density of large trees.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbe TB, Montgomery DR (2003) Patterns and processes of wood debris accumulation in the Queets river basin, Washington. Geomorphology 51:81–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Agee JK (1993) Fire ecology of Pacific Northwest forests. Island Press, Covelo

    Google Scholar 

  • Alaback PB (1982) Dynamics of understory biomass in Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests of southeast Alaska. Ecology 63:1932–1948

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antos JA, Filipescu CN, Negrave RW (2016) Ecology of western redcedar (Thuja plicata): implications for management of a high-value multiple-use resource. For Ecol Manag 375:211–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balian EV, Naiman RJ (2005) Abundance and production of riparian trees in the lowland floodplain of the Queets River, Washington. Ecosystems 8:841–861

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauhus J, Puettmann K, Messier C (2009) Silviculture for old-growth attributes. For Ecol Manag 258:525–537

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beechie TJ, Liermann M, Pollock MM, Baker S, Davies J (2006) Channel pattern and river-floodplain dynamics in forested mountain river systems. Geomorphology 78:124–141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bormann FH, Likens GE (1979) Pattern and process in a forested ecosystem. Springer, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Breiman L (2001) Random forests. Mach Learn 45:5–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer MC, Mass CF, Potter BE (2012) The west coast thermal trough: climatology and synoptic evolution. Mon Weather Rev 140:3820–3843

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns RM, Honkala BH (1990) Silvics of North America. Agriculture Handbook, Washington, pp 148–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler BJ, Hewes JH, Dickinson BJ, Andrejczyk K, Butler SM, Markowski-Lindsay M (2016) Family forest ownerships of the United States, 2013: findings from the USDA Forest Service’s National Woodland Owner Survey. J For 114:638–647

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen X, Hossain F, Leung LR (2017) Probable maximum precipitation in the U.S. Pacific Northwest in a changing climate. Water Resour Res 53:9600–9622

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Churchill DJ, Larson AJ, Dahlgreen MC, Franklin JF, Hessburg PF, Lutz JA (2013) Restoring forest resilience: from reference spatial patterns to silvicultural prescriptions and monitoring. For Ecol Manag 291:442–457

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins BD, Montgomery DR, Fetherston KL, Abbe TB (2012) The floodplain large-wood cycle hypothesis: a mechanism for the physical and biotic structuring of temperate forested alluvial valleys in the North Pacific coastal ecoregion. Geomorphology 139–140:460–470

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cordes LD (1972) An ecological study of the Stika spruce forest on the west coast of Vancouver Island. Dissertation, University of British Columbia

  • Crausbay SD, Higuera PE, Sprugel DG, Brubaker LB (2017) Fire catalyzed rapid ecological change in lowland coniferous forests of the Pacific Northwest over the past 14,000 years. Ecology 98:2356–2369

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deal RL, Hennon P, O’Hanlon R, D’Amore DD (2014) Lessons from native spruce forests in Alaska: managing Sitka spruce plantations worldwide to benefit biodiversity and ecosystem services. Forestry 87:193–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deal RL, Orlikowska EH, D’Amore DV, Hennon PE (2017) Red alder-conifer stands in Alaska: an example of mixed species management to enhance structural and biological complexity. Forests 8:1–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donato DC, Campbell JL, Franklin JF (2012) Multiple successional pathways and precocity in forest development: can some forests be born complex? J Veg Sci 23:576–584

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • East AE, Jenkins KJ, Happe PJ, Bountry JA, Beechie TJ, Mastin MC, Sankey JB, Randle TJ (2016) Channel-planform evolution in four rivers of Olympic National Park, Washington, USA: the roles of physical drivers and trophic cascades. Earth Surf Process Landforms 42:1032–1101

    Google Scholar 

  • ESRI (2014) ArcGIS Desktop: release 10.3

  • Fawcett T (2004) ROC graphs: notes and practical considerations for researchers. Pattern Recognit Lett 27:861–874

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fonda RW (1974) Forest succession in relation to river terrace development in Olympic National Park, Washington. Ecology 55:927–942

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin JF, Dyrness CT (1988) Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin JF, Johnson KN (2012) A restoration framework for federal Forests in the Pacific Northwest. J For 110:429–439

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin JF, Johnson NK, Johnson DL (2018) Ecological forest management. Waveland Press, Long Grove

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin JF, Spies TA, Van Pelt R, Carey AB, Thornburgh DA, Berg DR, Lindenmayer DB, Harmon ME, Keeton WS, Shaw DC, Bible K (2002) Disturbances and structural development of natural forest ecosystems with silvicultural implications, using Douglas-fir forests as an example. For Ecol Manag 155:399–423

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freund JA, Franklin JF, Larson AJ, Lutz JA (2014) Multi-decadal establishment for single-cohort Douglas-fir forests. Can J For Res 44:1068–1078

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner RH, Milne BT, Turner MG, O’Neill RV (1987) Neutral models for the analysis of broad-scale landscape pattern. Landsc Ecol 1:19–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gavin DG, Brubaker LB, Lertzman KP (2003) Holocene fire history of a coastal temperate rain forest based on soil charcoal radiocarbon dates. Ecology 84:186–201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman AAJ, Kerhoulas LP, Polda WT, Kerhoulas NJ (2019) Epiphyte diversity, abundance, and distribution in an old Sitka spruce crown. Evansia 36:12–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurnell AM, Piégay H, Swanson F, Gregory SV (2002) Large wood and fluvial processes. Freshw Biol 47:601–619

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halofsky JE, Donato DC, Hibbs DE, Campbell JL, Cannon MD, Fontaine JB, Thompson JR, Anthony RG, Bormann BT, Kayes LJ, Law BE (2011) Mixed-severity fire regimes: lessons and hypotheses from the Klamath-Siskiyou Ecoregion. Ecosphere 2:1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamer TE, Nelson SK (1995) Characteristics of marbled murrelet nest trees and nesting stands. USDA Forest Service, Albany

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey BJ, Donato DC, Turner MG (2016) Burn me twice, shame on who? Interactions between successive forest fires across a temperate mountain region. Ecology 97:2272–2282

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heller PL, Beland PE, Humphrey NF, Konrad SK, Lynds RM, McMillan ME, Valentine KE, Widman YA, Furbish DJ (2001) Paradox of downstram fining and weathering-rind formation in the lower Hoh River, Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Geology 29:971–974

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson JA, Peter DA, Lesher RD, Shaw DC (1989) Forested plant associations of the Olympic National Forest. USDA, Forest Service. Pac. Northwest Reg. Ecol. Tech. Paper 001-88

  • Hennon PE (1995) Are heart rot fungi major factors of disturbance in gap-dynamic forests? Northwest Sci 69:284–293

    Google Scholar 

  • Huff MH (1995) Forest age structure and development following wildfires in the western Olympic Mountains, Washington. Ecol Appl 5:471–483

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ishii H, Minamino T, Azuma W, Hotta K, Nakanishi A (2018) Large, retained trees of Cryptomeria japonica functioned as refugia for canopy woody plants after logging 350 years ago in Yakushima, Japan. For Ecol Manag 409:457–467

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeronimo SM, Kane VR, Churchill DJ, McGaughey RJ, Franklin JF (2018) Applying LiDAR individual tree detection to management of structurally diverse forest landscapes. J For 116:336–346

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnstone JF, Allen CD, Franklin JF, Frelich LE, Harvey BJ, Higuera PE, Mack MC, Meentemeyer RK, Metz MR, Perry GL, Schoennagel T (2015) Changing disturbance regimes, ecological memory, and forest resilience. Front Ecol Environ 14:369–378

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knapp PA, Hadley KS (2012) A 300-year history of Pacific Northwest windstorms inferred from tree rings. Glob Planet Change 92–93:257–266

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer RD, Sillett SC, Van Pelt R (2018) Quantifying aboveground components of Picea sitchensis for allometric comparisons among tall conifers in North American rainforests. For Ecol Manag 430:59–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer RD, Sillett SC, Van Pelt R, Franklin JF (2019) Neighborhood competition mediates crown development of Picea sitchensis in Olympic rainforests: implications for restoration management. For Ecol Manag 441:127–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LaHaye WS, Gutiérrez RJ (1999) Nest sites and nesting habitat of the northern spotted owl in northwestern California. Condor 101:324–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larson AJ, Lutz JA, Donato DC, Freund JA, Swanson ME, Hille Ris Lambers J, Sprugel DG, Franklin JF (2015) Spatial aspects of tree mortality strongly differ between young and old-growth forests. Ecology 96:2855–2861

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latterell JJ, Bechtold JS, O’Keefe TC, Van Pelt R, Naiman RJ (2006) Dynamic patch mosaics and channel movement in an unconfined river valley of the Olympic Mountains. Freshw Biol 51:523–544

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Law BE, Hudiburg TW, Berner LT, Kent JJ, Buotte PC, Harmon ME (2018) Land use strategies to mitigate climate change in carbon dense temperate forests. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 115:3663–3668

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy LSY, Deal RL, Tappeiner JC (2010) The density and distribution of Sitka spruce and western hemlock seedling banks in partially harvested stands in southeast Alaska. PNW For and Ran Exp Stat, Portland, Oregon. Res Pap PNW-585, pp 1–20

  • Lindenmayer D, Messier C, Sato C (2016) Avoiding ecosystem collapse in managed forest ecosystems. Front Ecol Environ 16:561–568

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindenmayer DB, Hobbs RJ (2007) Managing and designing landscapes for conservation: moving from perspectives to principles. Blackwell, Oxford

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lindenmayer DB, Laurance WF, Franklin JF, Likens GE, Banks SC, Blanchard W, Gibbons P, Ikin K, Blair D, McBurney L, Manning AD, Stein JAR (2014) New policies for old trees: averting a global crisis in a keystone ecological structure. Conserv Lett 7:61–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loehle C (1988) Tree life history strategies: the role of defenses. Can J For Res 18:209–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz JA, Larson AJ, Swanson ME, Freund JA (2012) Ecological importance of large-diameter trees in a temperate mixed-conifer forest. PLoS ONE 7:1–15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lysak T, Ross DW, Maguire D, Overhulser DL (2006) Predicting spruce weevil damage on Sitka spruce in the northern Oregon Coast Range. West J Appl For 21:159–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mass CF, Dotson B (2010) Major extratropical cyclones of the Northwest United States: historical review, climatology, and synoptic environment. Mon Weather Rev 138:2499–2527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGarigal K, Cushman SA, Ene E (2012) FRAGSTATS v4: spatial pattern analysis program for categorical and continuous maps. University of Amherst, Amherst

    Google Scholar 

  • McGaughey RJ (2009) FUSION/LDV: software for LiDAR data analysis and visualization. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Seattle

    Google Scholar 

  • McKee A, Laroi G, Franklin JF (1982) Structure, composition, and reproductive behavior of terrace forests, South Fork Hoh River, Olympic National Park. In: Starkey EE, Franklin JF, Mathews JW (eds) Ecological research in national parks of the Pacific Northwest. National Park Service Cooperative Studies Unit, Corvallis, pp 22–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Minore D (1979) Comparative autecological characteristics of northwestern tree species: a literature review. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland

    Google Scholar 

  • Murtagh F, Legendre P (2014) Ward’s hierarchical agglomerative clustering method: which algorithms implement Ward’s Criterion? J Classif 31:274–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • North MP, Kane JT, Kane VR, Asner GP, Bergian W, Churchill DJ, Conway S, Gutierrez RJ, Jeronimo S, Keane J, Koltunov A (2017) Cover of tall trees best predicts California spotted owl habitat. For Ecol Manag 405:166–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor JE, Jones MA, Haluska TL (2003) Flood plain and channel dynamics of the Quinault and Queets Rivers, Washington, USA. Geomorphology 51:31–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oldeman RA (1990) Forests: elements of silvology. Springer, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson EB, Peterson NM, Weetman GF, Martin PJ (1997) Ecology and management of Sitka spruce: emphasizing its natural range in British Columbia. UBC Press, Vancouver

    Google Scholar 

  • PRISM (2018) PRISM Climate Group. Gridded climate data for the contiguous USA

  • PSLC (2018) Pudget Sound LiDAR Consortium. https://pugetsoundlidar.ess.washington.edu/. Accessed 6 July 2016

  • R Core Team (2018) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna

    Google Scholar 

  • Raphael MG, Young JA, Galleher BM (1995) A landscape analysis of marbled murrelet habitat in western Washington. In: Ralph JC, Hunt GL, Raphael MG, Piatt JF (eds) Ecology and Conservation of the marbled murrelet. USDA, Forest Service. Pac Soutwest Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep PSW-GTR-152

  • Read W (2016) The climatology and meteorology of windstorms that affect the cascadia region of North America, including the US Pacific Northwest and southwest British Columbia, Canada. In: Storm King. climate.washington.edu/stormking. Accessed 1 Jun 2020

  • Risser PG (1995) The Allerton Park workshop revisited—a commentary. Landsc Ecol 10:129–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruggiero LF, Aubry KB, Carey AB, Huff MH (1991) Wildlife and vegetataion of unmanaged Douglas-fir forests. USDA, Forest Service. Pac Northwest Res Sta, Gen Tech Rep PNW-GTR-285

  • Ruth RH, Harris AS (1979) Management of western hemlock-and Sitka spruce forests for timber. USDA, Forest Service, PNW For and Ran Exp Stat, Portland, Oregon. Gen Tech Rep PNW-GTR-88 production

  • Ruth RH, Yoder RA (1953) Reducing wind damage in the forests of the Oregon Coast Range. USDA, Forest Service, PNW For and Ran Exp Stat, Portland, Oregon. Research Paper No. 7

  • Schütz J (1999) Close-to-nature silviculture: is this concept compativle with species diversity? Forestry 72:359–366

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sedell JR, Bisson PA, June JA, Speaker RW (1982) Ecology and habitat requirements of fish populations in South Fork Hoh River, Olympic National Park.pdf. In: Starkey EE, Franklin JF, Matthews JW (eds) Ecological research in national parks of the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University Research Laboratory, Corvalli, pp 35–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Sillett SC, Van Pelt R (2007) Trunk reiteration promotes epiphytes and water storage in an old-growth redwood forest canopy. Ecol Monogr 77:335–359

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sillett SC, Van Pelt R, Carroll AL, Campbell-Spickler J, Antoine ME (2020) Aboveground biomass dynamics and growth efficiency of Sequoia sempervirens forests. For Ecol Manag 458:117740

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sillett SC, Van Pelt R, Freund JA, Campbell-Spickler J, Carroll AL, Kramer RD (2018) Development and dominance of Douglas-fir in North American rainforests. For Ecol Manag 429:93–114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spickler JC, Sillett SC, Marks SB, Welsh HH Jr (2006) Evidence of a new Niche for a North American Salamander: Aneides vagrans residing in the canopy of old—growth redwood forest. Herpetol Conserv Biol 1:16–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Stallins JA (2006) Geomorphology and ecology: Unifying themes for complex systems in biogeomorphology. Geomorphology 77:207–216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson ME, Franklin JF, Beschta RL, Crisafulli CM, DellaSala DA, Hutto RL, Lindenmayer DB, Swanson FJ (2011) The forgotten stage of forest succession: early-successional ecosystems on forest sites. Front Ecol Environ 9:117–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor AH (1990) Disturbance and persistence of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong) Carr.) in coastal forests of the Pacific Northwest. N Am J Biogeogr 17:47–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor SP, Delong C, Alfaro RI, Rankin L (1996) The effects of overstory shading on white pine weevil damage to white spruce and its effects on spruce growth rates. Can J For Res 26:306–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tepley AJ, Swanson FJ, Spies TA (2013) Fire-mediated pathways of stand development in Douglas-fir/western hemlock forests of the Pacific Northwest, USA. Ecology 94:1729–1743

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thackray GD (2001) Extensive early and middle Wisconsin glaciation on the western Olympic Peninsula, Washington, and the variability of Pacific moisture delivery to the northwestern United States. Q Res 55:257–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson I, Mackey B, McNulty S, Mosseler A (2009) Forest resilience, biodiversity, and climate change: a synthesis of the biodiversity/resilience/stability relationship in forest ecosystems. Secretariat of the convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner MG (1989) Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 20:171–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner MG (2010) Disturbance and landscape dynamics in a changing world. Ecology 91:2833–2849

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner MG, Romme WH (1994) Landscape dynamics in crown fire ecosystems. Landsc Ecol 9:59–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Pelt R (2001) Forest giants of the Pacific coast. University of Washington Press, Seattle

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Pelt R (2007) Identifying mature and old forests in western Washington. Washington Department of Natural Resources, Olympia, p 103

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Pelt R, O’Keefe TC, Latterell JJ, Naiman RJ (2006) Riparian forest stand development along the Queets River in Olympic National Park, Washington. Ecol Monogr 76:277–298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Pelt R, Sillett SC, Kruse WA, Freund JA, Kramer RD (2016) Emergent crowns and light-use complementarity lead to global maximum biomass and leaf area in Sequoia sempervirens forests. For Ecol Manag 375:279–308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westerling AL, Hidalgo HG, Cayan DR, Swetnam TW (2006) Warming and earlier spring increase Western U.S. forest wildfire activity. Science 313:940–943

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wohl E (2014) Channel forms. Rivers in the landscape: science and management. Wiley and Blackwell, West Sussex, pp 125–163

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Kenneth L. Fisher for supporting this research through a Grant to the University of Washington. Additionally, we thank Patrick Tobin for helpful comments after reviewing the manuscript. Johnathan Kane, Bryce Bartl-Geller, Sean Jeronimo, and Bob McGaughey helped with LiDAR processing and analysis and Michele Buonanduci with ideas for interpreting spatial data. Lastly, we thank the coordinating editor and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, College of the Environment, University of Washington, Anderson Hall, Box 352100, Seattle, WA, 98195-2100, USA

    Russell D. Kramer, Stephen C. Sillett, Van R. Kane & Jerry F. Franklin

  2. Department of Forestry and Wildland Resources, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA

    Stephen C. Sillett

Authors
  1. Russell D. Kramer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stephen C. Sillett
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Van R. Kane
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jerry F. Franklin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by RDK and SCS. The first and subsequent drafts of the manuscript were written by RDK and all authors commented on previous version of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Russell D. Kramer.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (PDF 233 kb)

Supplementary file2 (PDF 1330 kb)

Supplementary file3 (PDF 4624 kb)

10980_2020_1003_MOESM4_ESM.xlsx

Supplementary file4 Excel file including worksheets with all three datasets used in the study. The first worksheet contains metadata with descriptions of each dataset and the variables in each. (XLSX 58395 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kramer, R.D., Sillett, S.C., Kane, V.R. et al. Disturbance and species composition drive canopy structure and distribution of large trees in Olympic rainforests, USA. Landscape Ecol 35, 1107–1125 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-020-01003-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-020-01003-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation