Abstract
This paper quantifies the inhalation and ingestion doses to different organs and tissues due to radon dissolved in drinking water. For this a study was under taken in Ludhiana district of Punjab, India. Radon enters the human body through respiratory tract during inhalation and through stomach during ingestion process. Utilizing the measured radon concentrations in water samples and adopting dose conversion models, ingestion doses corresponding to different age groups (infants, 1-year, 5-year, 10-year, 15-year and adults) were estimated. The study concludes that the maximum dose is received by the stomach as compared to other organs and tissues. Dose to lower age groups was found to be higher than that for the adults. Cancer mortality and morbidity risks have also been estimated for different cancer-sites. Stomach was seen to possess maximum cancer mortality risk for both male and female gender. An assessment of contribution of radon dissolved in water radon to indoor concentration was also made.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Hutton G, Haller L, Bartram J (2007) Economic and health effects of increasing coverage of low cost household drinking-water supply and sanitation interventions to countries off-track to meet MDG target 10. Public Health and the Environment, World Health Organization Geneva
WHO (2000) World Health Organization and UNICEF, United Nations Children’s Fund. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment Report, New York
Shahrokhi A, Shokraee F, Reza A, Rahimi H (2015) Health risk assessment of household exposure to indoor radon in associationbwith the dwelling’s age. J Radiat Prot Res 40(3):155–161
Sharma N, Singh J (2017) Human kidney and skeleton uranium burden, radiation dose and health risks from high uranium contents in drinking water of Bathinda district (Malwa region) of Punjab state India. Radiat Prot Dosim. https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncx002
NRC (1999) National Research Council. Risk assessment of radon in drinking water. Committee on Risk Assessment of Exposure to Radon in Drinking Water, Board on Radiation Effects Research, Commission on Life Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. http://www.nap.edu/catalog/6287.html
Nussbaum E (1957) Radon solubility in body tissues and in fatty acids. Report UR-503. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester
Nazaroff WW, Doyle SM, Nero AV, Sextro RG (1987) Potable water as a source of airborne 222Rn in U.S. dwellings: a review and assessment. Health Phys 52(3):281–95
UNSCEAR (2000) United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. United Nation, New York
Adelikhah M, Shahrokhi A, Imani M, Chalupnik S, Kovács T (2021) Radiological assessment of indoor radon and thoron concentrations and indoor radon map of dwellings in Mashhad. Iran. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18(1):141
Kumar M, Kaushal A, Sarin A, Kumar R, Sharma N (2017) Radon/thoron and progeny levels in dwellings: Regional variations and effect of dwelling characteristics- A case study in Jalandhar district of Punjab, India. Indoor Built Environ 27(5): 1420326X1668761. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X16687614
Shahrokhi A, Vigh T, Németh C, Csordás A, Kovács T (2017) Radon measurements and dose estimate of workers in a manganese ore mine. Appl Radiat Isot 124:32–37
Shahrokhi A, Kovacs T (2021) Radiological survey on radon entry path in an underground mine and implementation of an optimized mitigation system. Environ Sci Eur 33:66. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-021-00507-w
Singh P, Singh P, Sahoo BK, Bajwa BS (2015) A study on uranium and radon levels in drinking water sources of a mineralized zone of Himachal Pradesh. J Radioanal Nucl Chem, India. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-015-4629-9
Whyte J, Falcomer R, Chen J (2019) A comparative study of radon levels in federal buildings and residential homes in Canada. Health Phys 117(3):242–247
Shahrokhi A, Nagy E, Csordás A, Somlai J, Kovács T (2016) Distribution of Indoor radon concentration between selected Hungarian thermal baths. Nukleonika 61(3):333–336
Adelikhah M, Shahrokhi A, Chalupnik S, Tὸth-Bodrogi E, Kovẚcs T (2020) High level of natural ionizing radiation at a thermal bath in Dehloran. Iran. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04297
Chen J (2019) Risk assessment for Radon exposure in various indoor environments. Radiat prot dosimetry 185(2):143–150
Műllerová M, Mazur J, Blahušiak P et al (2016) Indoor radon activity concentration in thermal spas: the comparison of three types of passive radon detectors. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 310:1077–1084
Jobbàgy V, Altzitzoglou T, Malo P, Tanner V, Hult M (2017) A brief overview on radon measurements in drinking water. J Environ Radioact 173:18–24
Khursheed A (2000) Doses to systemic tissues from radon gas. Radiat Prot Dosimetry 88:171–181
Kendall GM, Smith TJ (2005) Doses from radon and its decay products to children. J Radiat Prot 25:241–256
Somlai K, Tokonami S, Ishikawa T, Vancsura P, Gaspar M, Jbbagy V, Somlai J, Kovacs T (2007) 222Rn concentration of water in the Balaton Highland and in the southern part of Hungary and the assessment of the resulting dose. Radiat Meas 42:491–495
Kendall GM, Smith TJ (2002) Dose to organs and tissues from radon and its decay products. J Radiat Prot 22:389–406
Ravikumar P, Somashekar RK (2014) Determination of the radiation dose due to radon ingestion and inhalation. Int J Environ Sci Technol 11:493–508
Zhuo W, Lida T, Yang X (2001) Occurrence of 222Rn, 226Ra, 228Ra and U in groundwater in Fujain province. Chin J Environ Radioact 53:111–120
Prasad M, Kumar GA, Sahoo BK, Ramola RC (2018) A comprehensive study of radon levels and associated radiation doses in Himalayan groundwater. Acta Geophys. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11600-018-0135-0
Ryan TP, Sequeira S, McKittrick L, Colgan PA (2003) Radon in drinking water in Co. Wicklow – a pilot study. Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland, http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/35/068/35068433.pdf. Accessed 8 April 2017
Mehra R, Singh S, Singh K (2006) A study of Uranium, Radium, Radon exhalation rate and Indoor Radon in the Environs of some areas of Malwa region. Punjab Indoor built Environ 15(5):499–505
Mehra R, Kaur K, Bangotra P (2015) Anuual effective dose of radon due to exposure in indoor air and groundwater in Bathinda district of Punjab. Indoor Built Environ. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X15588566
Bajwa BS, Kumar S, Singh S, Sahoo SK, Tripathi RM (2017) Uranium and other heavy toxic elements distribution in the drinking water samples of SW- Punjab. India J Radiat Res Appl Sci 10:13–19
Mehra R, Singh S, Singh K (2007) Uranium studies in water samples belonging to Malwa region of Punjab, using track etching technique. Radiat meas 42:441–445
Gaware JJ, Sahoo BK, Sapra BK, Mayya YS (2011) Indigenous development and networking of online radon monitors in the underground uranium mine. Radiat Prot Environ 34:37–40
Geological survey of India, Northern region, https://employee.gsi.gov.in/cs/groups/public/documents/document/b3zp/mtu4/~edisp/dcport1gsigovi158180.pdf. Accessed 12 Dec 2019
Operational Manual for Portable Radon Monitor- Smart RnDuo (2015) Radiological Physics and Advisory Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Department of Atomic Energy, Trombay, Mumbai
Pant P, Kandari T, Prasad M, Ramola RC (2016) A Comparative study of diurnalvariation of radon and thoron concentrations in indoor environment. Radiat Prot Dosim 171(2):212–216
Leggett RW, Williams LR (1991) Suggested reference values for regional blood volume in humans. Health Phys 60:139–154
Leggett RW, Williams LR (1995) A proposed blood circulation model for reference man. Health Phys 69:187–201
Williams LR, Leggett RW (1989) Reference values for resting blood flow to organs of man. Clin Physiol Meas 10:187–217
Brown WL, Hess CT (1992) Measurement of the biotransfer and time constant of radon from ingested water by human breath analysis. Health Phys 62:162–170
Crawford-Brown DJ (1989) The biokinetics and dosimetry of radon-222 in the human body following ingestion of ground water. Environ Geochem Health 11:10–17
Harley NH, Robbins ES (1994) A biokinetic model for Rn-222 gas distribution and alpha dose in humans following ingestion. Environ Int 20(5):605–610
Hursh JB, Morken DA, Davis TP, Lovaas A (1965) The fate of radon ingested by man. Health Phys 11:465–476
Sharma N, Hess CT, Thrall KD (1996) A compartmental model of water radon contamination in the human body. Health phys 72(2):261–268
Suomela M, Kahlos M (1972) Studies on the elimination rate and the radiation exposure following ingestion of Rn-222 rich water. Health Phys 23:641–652
Von Doebeln W, Lindell B (1964) Some aspects of radon contamination following ingestion. Arkiv fur Fysik 27:531–572
ICRP (2007) International Commission on Radiological Protection. The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 103, Annals of the ICRP 37 (2–4)
ICRP (1991) International Commission on Radiological Protection. The 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 60, Annals of the ICRP 21(1–3). Oxford: Pergamon Press
IAEA (1996) International Atomic Energy Agency. International basic safety standards for protection against ionizing radiation and for the safety of radiation sources. Vienna, Safety Series-115
EPA (1998) Environmental Protection Agency. Health Risks from Low-Level Environmental Exposure to Radionuclides, Federal Guidance Report No. 13, Part 1- Interim Version (Eckerman KF, Leggett RW, Nelson CB, Puskin JS, Richardson ACB). EPA 402-R-97–014. Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Environmental Protection Agency
EPA (1999) Environmental Protection Agency. Cancer Risk Coefficients for Environmental Exposure to Radionuclides, Federal Guidance Report No. 13, EPA 402-R-99–001, Oak Ridge National laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
EPA (1994) Environmental Protection Agency. Estimating Radiogenic Cancer Risk, EPA 402-R-93–076, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
EPA (1991) Environmental Protection Agency. Federal Register 40 Parts 141 and 142: national primary drinking water regulations; radionuclides: proposed rule. US Government printing office, Washington, DC
EU (1998) European Commission. European drinking water directive 98/83/EC of November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption. Official J L 330. Official Journal of the European Commission.
WHO (2011) World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking water quality. In: Radiological aspects. Geneva. pp 214–217
UNSCEAR (2008) United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. In: UNSCEAR 2008 Report to General Assembly with Scientific Annexes. New York: United Nations
WHO (2008) World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality, vol 1. World Health Organization Publication, Geneva. pp 197–209
Kumar M, Kaushal A, Sahoo BK, Sarin A, Mehra R, Jakhu R, Bhalla A, Sharma N (2017) Measurements of Uranium and radon concentration in drinking water samples and assessment of ingestion dose to local population in Jalandhar district of Punjab, India. Indoor Built Environ. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X17703773
Rangaswamy DR, Srinivasa E, Srilatha MC, Sannappa J (2015) Measurement of radon concentration in drinking water of Shimoga district, Karnataka, India. J Radioanal Nucl Chem. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-015-4216-0
EU (2001) European Commission. Commission recommendation of 20th December 2001 on the protection of public against exposure to radon in drinking water. 2001/1982/Euratom.L344/85, Official Journal of European Commission
Khalid AA, Abdulrahman SA, Fahad IA, Md Shafiqul I (2013) Measurement of radon levels in groundwater supplies of Riyadh with liquid scintillation counter and the associated radiation dose. Radiat Prot Dosimetry 154(1):95–103
EPA (1993) Environmental Protection Agency. External Exposure to Radionuclides in Air, Water and Soil. Federal Guidance Report No. 12, EPA-402-R-93–081, Oak Ridge National laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Acknowledgements
Authors express their gratitude to Board of Research in Nuclear Sciences, Department of Atomic Energy, Mumbai, India for providing financial assistance under a major research project (Project No. 2013/36/54-BRNS) for this work. The authors also acknowledge the financial support by DST Government of India under FIST Scheme.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sarin, A., Kaushal, A., Bajwa, B.S. et al. Quantification of doses and health risks to organs and tissues corresponding to different age groups due to radon in water. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 330, 643–655 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-021-08050-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-021-08050-x