Abstract
Adolescents who lack traits valued by peers are at risk for adjustment difficulties but the mechanisms responsible for deteriorating well-being have yet to be identified. The present study examines processes whereby low athleticism and low attractiveness give rise to adolescent adjustment difficulties. Participants were public middle school students (ages 10 to 13 years, Mage = 11.54, SDage = 1.00) in the USA and Lithuania (300 girls, 280 boys; 52.7% girls). Self-reports of alcohol misuse and loneliness were collected three times during an academic year (M = 12.3 week intervals). Athleticism, attractiveness, unpopularity, and peer rejection were assessed through peer nominations. Full longitudinal mediation analyses examined direct and indirect pathways from stigmatized traits (i.e., low athleticism, low attractiveness) to adjustment difficulties (i.e., alcohol misuse, loneliness) through two indices of low peer status: unpopularity and rejection. The results indicated that the possession of stigmatized traits predicted escalating unpopularity, which, in turn, predicted increasing adjustment difficulties. Similar indirect associations did not emerge with rejection as a mediator, underscoring the unique role of power and prominence (and the lack thereof) in socioemotional development. The findings underscore the adjustment risks and interpersonal challenges that confront children and adolescents who lack traits valued by peers.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bellmore, A. (2011). Peer rejection and unpopularity: Associations with GPAs across the transition to middle school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(2), 282–295. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023312.
Berger, J., & Fisek, M. H. (2006). Diffuse status characteristics and the spread of status value: A formal theory. American Journal of Sociology, 111(4), 1038–1079. https://doi.org/10.1086/498633.
Blöte, A. W., Miers, A. C., & Westenberg, P. M. (2014). The role of social performance and physical attractiveness in peer rejection of socially anxious adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 25(1), 189–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12107.
Borch, C., Hyde, A., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2011). The role of attractiveness and aggression in high school popularity. Social Psychology of Education, 14, 23–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-010-9131-1.
Bos, A. E. R., Pryor, J. B., Reeder, G. D., & Stutterheim, S. E. (2013). Stigma: Advances in theory and research. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2012.746147.
Center for Disease Control. (2020, August). Trends in the prevalence of alcohol use national YRBS: 1991–2019. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/factsheets/2019_alcohol_trend_yrbs.htm.
Choukas-Bradley, S., Giletta, M., Neblett, E. W., & Prinstein, M. J. (2015). Ethnic differences in associations among popularity, likability, and trajectories of adolescents’ alcohol use and frequency. Child Development, 86(2), 519–535. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12333.
Christiansen, J., Qualter, P., Friis, K., Pedersen, S. S., Lund, R., Andersen, C. M., Bekker-Jeppesen, M., & Lasgaard, M. (2021). Associations of loneliness and social isolation with physical and mental health among adolescents and young adults. Perspectives in Public Health, 141(4), 226–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139211016077.
Coleman, J. S. (1961). The Adolescent Society. Westport, Connecticut: Free Press.
Dawson, D. A., Goldstein, R. B., Chou, S. P., Ruan, W. J. & & Grant, B. F. (2008). Age at first drink and first incidence of adult-onset DSM-IV alcohol use disorders. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 32(12), 2149–2160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00806.x.
Dickson, D. J., Laursen, B., Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2015). Parental supervision and alcohol abuse among adolescent girls. Pediatrics, 136(4), 617–624. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-1258.
Dijkstra, J. K., Cillessen, A. H. N., Lindenberg, S. & & Veenstra, R. (2010). Same-gender and cross-gender likeability: Associations with popularity and status enhancement: The TRIALS study. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 30(6), 773–802. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431609350926.
Dunn, J. C., Dunn, J. G. H., & Bayduza, A. (2007). Perceived athletic competence, sociometric status, and loneliness in elementary school children. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30(3), 249–269. ISSN: 0162-7341.
Eder, D. (1985). The cycle of popularity: Interpersonal relations among female adolescents. Sociology of Education, 58(3), 154–165. https://doi.org/10.2307/2112416.
Engels, M. C., Colpin, H., Wouters, S., Van Leeuwen, K., Bijttebier, P., Van Den Noortgate, W., Goossens, L., & Cerschueren, K. (2019). Adolescents’ peer status profiles and differences in school engagement and loneliness trajectories: A person-centered approach. Learning and Individual Differences, 75, 101759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101759.
Ellickson, P. L., Tucker, J. S., & Klein, D. J. (2003). Ten-year prospective study of public health problems associated with early drinking. Pediatrics, 111(5), 949–955. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.5.949.
Farmer, T. W., Estell, D. B., Hall, C. M., Pearl, R., Van Acker, R., & Rodkin, P. C. (2008). Interpersonal competence configurations, behavior problems, and social adjustment in preadolescence. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 16(4), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426608320355.
Feingold, A. (1992). Good-looking people are not what we think. Psychological Bulletin, 111(2), 304–341. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.111.2.304.
Ferguson, G. M., Hafen, C. A., & Laursen, B. (2010). Adolescent psychological and academic adjustment as a function of discrepancies between actual and ideal self-perceptions. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(12), 1485–1497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9461-5.
Fritz, M. S., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2012). Mediation models for developmental data. In B. Laursen, T. D. Little, & N. A. Card (Eds.), Handbook of developmental research methods (pp. 291–310). New York, NY: Guilford.
Gordon, R. A., Crosnoe, R., & Wang, X. (2013). Physical attractiveness and the accumulation of social and human capital in adolescence and young adulthood: Assets and distractions. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(6), 1–137. https://doi.org/10.1002/mono.12060.
Gorman, A. H., Schwartz, D., Nakamoto, J., & Mayeux, L. (2011). Unpopularity and disliking among peers: Partially distinct dimensions of adolescents’ social experiences. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 32, 208–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2011.05.001.
Hamaker, E. L., Kuiper, R. M., & Grasman, R. P. P. P. (2015). A critique of the cross-lagged panel model. Psychological Methods, 20(1), 102–116. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038889.
Henricks, L. A., Lange, W.-G., Luijten, M., van den Berg, Y. H. M., Stoltz, S. E. M. J., Cillessen, A. H. N., & Becker, E. S. (2023). The longitudinal link between popularity, likeability, fear of negative evaluation and social avoidance across adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 2, 28–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12833.
Jewell, J. A., & Spears Brown, C. (2014). Relations among gender typicality, peer relations, and mental health during early adolescence. Social Development, 23(1), 137–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12042.
Katulis, G., Kaniušonytė, G., & Laursen, B. (2023). Positive classroom climate buffers against increases in loneliness arising from shyness, rejection sensitivity and emotional reactivity. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1081989. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1081989.
Knack, J. M., Tsar, V., Vaillancourt, T., Hymel, S., & McDougall, P. (2012). What protects rejected adolescents from also being bullied by their peers? The moderating role of peer‐valued characteristics. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(3), 467–479. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00792.x.
Ladd, G. W., & Ettekal, I. (2013). Pee-related loneliness across early to late adolescence: Normative trends, intra-individual trajectories, and links with depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 1269–1282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.05.004.
LaFontana, K. M., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2002). Children’s perceptions of popular and unpopular peers: A multimethod assessment. Developmental Psychology, 38(5), 635–647. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.38.5.635.
Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103.
Laursen, B., & Hartl, A. C. (2013). Understanding loneliness during adolescence: Developmental changes that increase the risk of perceived social isolation. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1261–1268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.06.003.
Lease, A. M., Musgrove, K. T., & Axelrod, J. L. (2002). Dimensions of social status in preadolescent peer groups: Likability, perceived popularity, and social dominance. Social Development, 11(4), 508–533. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00213.
Markovic, A., & Bowker, J. C. (2015). Shy, but funny? Examining peer-valued characteristics as moderators of the associations between anxious-withdrawal and peer outcomes during early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 833–846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0113-z.
Marks, P. E. L., Babcock, B., van den Berg, Y. H. M., Gommans, R. & & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2022). Adolescent popularity as a nonlinear, two-dimensional construct: Convergent results from three large samples. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(1), 115–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211016066.
Mayeux, L., & Kleiser, M. (2020). A gender prototypicality theory of adolescent peer popularity. Adolescent Research Review, 5, 295–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00123-z.
Muthén, B., & Asparouhov, T. (2012). Bayesian structural equation modeling: A more flexible representation of substantive theory. Psychological Methods, 17(3), 313–335. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026802.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2017). Mplus User’s Guide (8th ed.). Los Angeles, California: Muthén & Muthén.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2002). How to use a monte carlo study to decide on sample size and determine power. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(4), 599–620. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0904_8.
Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R. (1993). Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: Links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Developmental Psychology, 29(4), 611–621. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.29.4.611.
Richmond, A. D., Laursen, B., Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2015). Depressive symptoms anticipate changes in the frequency of alcohol intoxication among low-accepted adolescents. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 76(4), 585–593. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2015.76.585.
Rose, A. J., Glick, G. C., & Smith, R. L. (2011). Popularity and gender: The two cultures of boys and girls. In A. H. N. Cillessen, D. Schwartz, & L. Mayeux (Eds.), Popularity in the peer system (pp. 103–122). New York, NY: Guilford.
Schinka, K. C., van Dulmen, M. H. M., Mata, A. D., Bossarte, R., & Swahn, M. (2013). Psychosocial predictors and outcomes of loneliness trajectories from childhood to early adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 1251–1260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.002.
Velásquez, A. M., Bukowski, W. M., & Saldarriaga, L. M. (2013). Adjusting for group size effects in peer nomination data. Social Development, 22(4), 845–863. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12029.
Vitaro, F., Boivin, M., & Poulin, F. (2018). The interface of aggression and peer relations in childhood and adolescence. In W. M. Bukowski, B. Laursen, & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups (pp. 284–301). New York, NY: Guilford.
Widaman, K. F., & Thompson, J. S. (2003). On specifying the null model for incremental fit indices in structural equation modeling. Psychological Methods, 8(1), 16–37. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.8.1.16.
Wood, S., Done, J., & Kalsi, H. (2009). Peer victimisation and internalising difficulties: The moderating role of friendship quality. Journal of Adolescence, 32(2), 293–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.03.005.
Xie, H., Li, Y., Boucher, S. M., Hutchins, B. C., & Cairns, B. D. (2006). What makes a girl (or a boy) popular (or unpopular)? African American children’s perceptions and developmental differences. Developmental Psychology, 42(4), 599–612. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.4.599.
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Pronk, R. E., Goodwin, B., Mastro, S., & Crick, N. R. (2013). Connected and isolated victims of relational aggression: Associations with peer group status and differences between girls and boys. Sex Roles, 68, 363–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0239-y.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the assistance and cooperation of the students, faculty, and staff at Palm Point Educational Research School in USA and the Utena District Schools in Lithuania.
Funding
This project was supported by grants from the U.S. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD096457) and the European Social Fund (project No 09.3.3-LMT-K-712-17-0009) under grant agreement with the Research Council of Lithuania (LMTLT).
Data sharing declarationThe datasets are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
MPL-J participated in the study design and coordination, performed the measurement and statistical analyses, participated in the interpretation of the data, and drafted and revised the manuscript; SF participated in the study design and coordination, performed the measurement and statistical analyses, participated in the interpretation of the data, and drafted and revised the manuscript; GK participated in study design, and drafted and revised the manuscript; RZ participated in study design, and drafted and revised the manuscript; BL conceived the study, participated in its design and coordination, and drafted and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical Approval
The study was approved by school officials and the Florida Atlantic University IRB (USA #135501-16) or ethics committee (Lithuania #6/-2020).
Informed Consent
Written parent consent and written child assent were required for participation.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Leggett-James, M.P., Faur, S., Kaniušonytė, G. et al. The Perils of Not Being Attractive or Athletic: Pathways to Adolescent Adjustment Difficulties Through Escalating Unpopularity. J. Youth Adolescence 52, 2231–2242 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01835-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01835-1